defense of New Orleans, where Jackson arrived December 2, 1814. The place was without defenses, and but for their own slowness and Jackson's almost frenzied energy, the British might easily have taken the town. Jackson proclaimed martial law, made the utmost of his means, and inspired his men with his own enthusiasm. The army was a motley one, being composed of regulars, militia from the neighboring States, a few pirates, and a battalion of negroes. On January 8, 1815, the British made their grand assault on Jackson's works, and were repulsed with great slaughter-the Americans having not only the better leadership, but remarkably good for tune due to various accidents. The British withdrew with the loss of their commander, Sir Edward Pakenham, and more than 2000 men. The American loss was only 8 killed and 13 wounded. The treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814, two weeks before the battle. This victory was the greatest American success on land during the War of 1812, and the position it gave Jackson was preeminent. Besides his personal popularity among the frontier people, whom he so thoroughly understood, he had now a national reputation. A mutiny in September, 1814, arising from a misunderstand ing as to enlistment, resulted finally in the execution of six men in February, 1815. This unprecedented sternness seems to have been justified, but when an attempt was later made to manufacture out of it political capital, Jackson, contrary to his usual method of action, disavowed responsibility. For the arrest of a Judge Hall during the prevalence of martial law Jackson was fined $1000 for contempt, but thirty years later this was refunded by Congress.

In April, 1815, Jackson was appointed commander-in-chief of the Southern Division, and Congress voted thanks for his services. His next active work was in the war against the Seminoles in Florida, in the course of which occurred another of his acts which created no little excitement. He arrested and put to death, on the charge of inciting the Indians, two British subjects, an English adventurer, Ambrister, who was not proved guilty, and a Scotch trader, Arbuthnot, who seems to have been innocent. At the same time Jackson hanged two Indian chiefs, and then seized Pensacola (1818) in spite of the remonstrance of the Spaniards. These proceedings created intense excitement in England; but after much angry correspondence there was a peaceable settlement. In Congress Jackson's conduct was very generally condemned, but all attempts to pass a vote of censure failed. On the cession of Florida to the United States he was appointed Governor (1821), and during his brief term of office had some serious difficulties in consequence of the arrest of a judge for issuing a writ of habeas corpus. Efforts in Congress to pass censure for this act were not successful. In 1822 the mission to Mexico was offered to him, but he refused to accept it.

The Seminole War closed Jackson's military career, and with no inclination of his own he was again taken into political life. In 1823 the Legislature of Tennessee elected him to the United States Senate, and at the same time nominated him for President. At the election the next year there were four candidates who received electoral votes as follows: John Quincy Adams, 84; William H. Crawford, 41; Henry

Clay, 37; and Jackson, 99. No one having a majority, the House of Representatives elected Adams, and Jackson retired to private life. But four years afterwards he was supported by all the opponents of the Administration, and elected by an immense majority-the vote being Jackson, 178; Adams, 83. Calhoun was reëlected VicePresident. The contest was one of the most personal and bitter in American political history, because Jackson, taking as a personal matter the party slander which accused Adams of buying Clay's support in the preceding election by the promise of the portfolio of State, threw his whole force into the struggle. Jackson was reëlected in 1832, his principal opponent being Henry Clay. In his second term Van Buren was Vice-President.

Jackson's eight years' administration of the Government meant the rise of the people to power. Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and even J. Q. Adams had also been affiliated with the Democratic-Republican Party, but they had been trained statesmen, who administered the Government in the interests of all classes. Now a man sprung from the people, relying upon them and thoroughly representing them, held the reins of power. He happened to be more or less of an autocrat, but it was inevitable that his successors would become more and more servants of the people or of the politicians who controlled the people. A new régime purely democratic had begun, and it was the people of the Union as a whole, not of the States as units, that had risen to power.

The chief feature of the new régime is to be found in the general sweeping of Government employees out of office on account of their political affiliations. Up to this time there had been few removals on such grounds, but Jackson acted upon the doctrine, enunciated by Marcy in 1831, that "to the victors belong the spoils of the vanquished." (See CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM.) The leading facts of Jackson's two administrations were the scandal concerning Mrs. Eaton (see EATON, MARGARET), whereby the Cabinet was broken up; the veto of the United States Bank charter; the removal of the deposits of public money from that bank; and particularly the prompt and complete crushing of the nullification movement in South Carolina in 1832. This movement was started in opposition to a high tariff, and Jackson himself was opposed to such a tariff; but he gave South Carolinians to know that while the laws remained unrepealed they should be enforced at any hazard. Before any serious conflict had occurred the matter was settled, chiefly through the influence of Henry Clay. During his second term Jackson was engaged in the bank war.' He ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to stop making deposits of public money in the United States Bank and its branches. The Cabinet was not favorable to such a policy, and Jackson put William J. Duane at the head of the Treasury; but as he declined to do the required services, he was displaced, and Roger B. Taney was appointed. Taney obeyed Jackson's order, and, in retaliation, the Senate refused to confirm his nomination as Secretary, and he was subsequently made Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Feeling ran so high in this bank war that the Senate passed a resolution of censure on the President, a proceeding unheard of till

then. In 1837 this resolution was by vote expunged from the record. The bank war' closed in 1836-37; the old bank was not rechartered; and after some time the independent treasury or 'sub-treasury' system was invented to take its place as a depository for public money. During Jackson's terms the national debt was entirely paid off; the Indians were removed from Georgia, and nearly all of them from Florida; and two States, Arkansas and Michigan, were admitted to the Union. The chief disturbing element was the question of slavery, and the great financial panic of 1837 was just beginning when he left the chair. His personal ascendency allowed him without opposition to name his successor, Martin Van Buren, who had skillfully won his friendship. On quitting office he published a farewell address, and retired to the Hermitage, as his home near Nashville was called, where he passed the remainder of his life, always, however, taking a deep interest in public affairs. He died June 8,

1845.

Jackson seems to have been very amiable when things were going his way, but when opposition arose his violence of temper and action was ungovernable. He was essentially a man of action and not a thinker, although in his oftenassailed bank policy he seems to have been nearer right in some respects than his critics. He was, take him all in all, one of the most commanding personalities in our history; but it seems clear that many of his decisions were determined by the way of manipulation by friends-known as the Kitchen Cabinet'-who shrewdly used his force and popularity. For his biography, consult: Eaton (Philadelphia, 1824); Cobbett (New York, 1834); Kendall (New York, 1844); Parton (3 vols., New York, 1860); and Sumner, in the "American Statesmen Series," new ed. (New York, 1900); also Benton, Thirty Years' View (New York, 1854); and Peck, Jacksonian Epoch (New York, 1899).

JACKSON, BENJAMIN DAYDON (1846-). A noted British botanist, born in London and educated at private schools. He is perhaps best known as the compiler of Index Kewensis (q.v.), a reference book which appeared from 1893 to 1895. and which was at once accepted as authority throughout the world for names of flowering plants. In 1880 he was elected president of the Linnæan Society. Among his other works are Guide to the Literature of Botany (1881); Vegetable Technology (1882); Glossary of Botanical Terms (1900).

He

He

JACKSON, CHARLES (1775-1855). An American jurist, born at Newburyport, Mass. graduated at Harvard in 1793; studied law with Chief Justice Parsons, and commencing practice in 1796 at Newburyport, rose to a high position at the bar. In 1803 he removed to Boston, where, associated with Judge Hubbard, he had the most lucrative practice in the State. was judge of the Massachusetts Supreme Court from 1813 to 1824, a member of the State Constitutional Convention of 1820, and one of the commissioners to revise the State laws in 1833. He published a Treatise on the Pleadings and Practice in Real Actions (1828), which is a standard work on the law of property.

JACKSON, CHARLES LORING (1847–). An American chemist, born in Boston and educated at Harvard and at Berlin. In 1868 he became VOL. XI.-6.

assistant and in 1881 professor of chemistry at Harvard. He published a number of papers, mainly on topics of inorganic chemistry, in the Proceedings of the American Academy and in The American Journal of Science.

JACKSON, CHARLES THOMAS (1805-80). An American scientist, born at Plymouth, Mass. He graduated at the Harvard Medical School in 1829, and took time during the last two years of his course to make a mineralogical and geological survey of Nova Scotia in company with Francis Alger of Boston. An account of this expedition is contained in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He went to Europe in 1829, and spent three years studying in Paris, varied by occasional trips to Germany and Italy. In 1833 he began the practice of medicine in Boston, but soon abandoned it to devote himself to chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. He was State geologist of Maine in 1836, of Rhode Island in 1839, and of New Hampshire in 1840. In 1837 he had a violent controversy with Morse, to whom he claimed to have given the idea of the telegraph. He explored the wilderness on the southern shore of Lake Superior in 1844, and from 1847 till 1849 was United States surveyor of mineral lands in Michigan. He claimed to be the discoverer of the anaesthetic properties of ether, and this involved him in a dispute with Dr. W. T. G. Morton. His claim was supported by many Boston physicians, and a committee appointed by the French Academy of Sciences to investigate

the matter decided that both men were entitled to recognition. Dr. Jackson published elaborate reports of his work as a State geologist, and as a member of the United States Geological Survey; contributed articles to the American Journal of Science and Arts, to the Comptes Rendus, and to the Bulletin de la Société Géologicale de France; and wrote a Manual of Etherization, with a History of Its Discovery (1863).

JACKSON, FORT. See FORT JACKSON.

JACKSON, GEORGE THOMAS (1852-). An American physician and dermatologist, born in New York City. He graduated in medicine at Columbia University in 1878, and studied for two years in Europe. From 1884 he devoted himself exclusively to dermatology, and became specialist in that subject in the chief New York colleges and hospitals. He is the author of: Diseases of the Hair and Scalp (1887, revised 1893); Baldness (1889); and The Ready Refercnce Handbook of Diseases of the Skin (1892).

JACKSON, HELEN FISKE HUNT (1831-85). An American poet and novelist, better known by her pen-name of 'H. H.' She was born at Amherst, Mass., October 18, 1831. Her father was Professor N. W. Fiske. At twenty-one she married Major Edward B. Hunt, of the United States Engineers, who died in 1863. She married afterwards (1875) William S. Jackson, a banker of Colorado Springs, Col. She died at San Francisco, August 12, 1885. Helen Hunt was educated at Ipswich, Mass., and in New York, and began to write for periodicals during her residence as a widow at Newport, R. I. Her poems won her friends, and in 1870 she published a volume of "Verses by H. H.," which was read widely. From this time her pen was constantly employed. The most ambitious of her works are the novels Mercy Philbrick's Choice

(1876), Hetty's Strange History (1877)-both in the "No Name Series;" a plea for better treatment of the Indians, A Century of Dishonor (1881); and the romance on the same theme entitled Ramona (1884). Mrs. Jackson also wrote some books for children, and several posthumous volumes were brought out shortly after her death, among them Sonnets and Lyrics (1886). The "Saxe Holm Series" are said to be hers; but it is becoming plain that her chief reputation is to rest upon her poems, some of which, e.g. Habeas Corpus, have a lyric power hardly surpassed by that of any American poet. For an appreciation of her genius, consult Higginson, Contemporaries (Boston, 1899).

An

JACKSON, HENRY ROOTES (1820-98). American diplomat and soldier, born in Athens, Ga. He graduated at Yale in 1839, and in the following year was admitted to the bar in Georgia, where he was for several years United States district attorney. During the Mexican War he commanded the First Regiment of Georgia Volunteers. In 1850 he became judge of the Superior Court, an office which he held until 1853, when he was sent to Vienna as the United States chargé d'affaires, and from 1854 to 1858 was Minister Resident. After his return to Georgia he aided the United States district attorney in prosecuting the owners of the slaveship Wanderer. Jackson was one of the Democratic delegates who seceded from the Charleston Convention in 1860. When his State seceded, he became a colonel on Governor Brown's staff, and was active in securing the United States arsenal at Augusta with its stores of arms and ammunition. He was then appointed major-general by the Governor, and was placed in command of all the State troops, but soon resigned this commission to accept one as brigadier-general in the Confederate service, and went to western Virginia, where he succeeded General Garnett upon the latter's death. Recalled by Governor Brown to aid in the defense of Georgia's seacoast, and unable to obtain leave of absence from the Richmond authorities, he resigned his Confederate commission, and was reappointed by the Governor major-general and commander of all the State troops. This office he held until the Georgia State troops were turned over to the Confederacy in 1862, when he was left without a commission. He was not again received into the Confederate service until near the close of the war, when he was made a brigadier-general in Hood's army, and after taking part in the battle of Franklin, was captured with his whole brigade at Nashville. He was appointed United States Minister to Mexico in 1885, but soon resigned. He published Tallulah and Other Poems (1850).

JACKSON, HOWELL EDMUNDS (1832-95). An American jurist, born at Paris, Tenn. He graduated at the University of Virginia in 1854, and at the law department of Cumberland Univer. sity in 1856, and then began the practice of law in Jackson and Memphis. He was strongly opposed to secession, but went with his State, and after the establishment of the Confederacy was appointed receiver for West Tennessee property confiscated by the new Government. This office left him abundant leisure, which he devoted to the study of law, and at the close of the war he became a member of the Tennessee Court of

Referees, a provisional Supreme Court created to hear the cases which had accumulated during the Civil War. In 1880 he was elected to the Tennessee Legislature, and the next year to the United States Senate. Before the expiration of his term he was appointed by the President a judge of the United States Circuit Court, and in 1893 President Harrison appointed him an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. When stricken with fatal illness he forced himself to attend the second hearing of the incometax law, and his vote would have caused it to become effective had not Justice Shiras (q.v.) reversed his previous decision.

JACKSON, JAMES (1757-1806). An American soldier and political leader, born in Devonshire, England. He went to Georgia in 1772 and began the study of law. He joined the "Liberty Boys;" took part in the defense of Savannah in 1776; was made brigade-major of the Georgia militia in 1778, and again engaged in the defense of Savannah. After its surrender he went to South Carolina, served with Sumter, Pickens, and Morgan, and was publicly thanked by the last named after the battle of Cowpens. He participated in the siege of Augusta, and was left in command after the capture in 1781. Later he organized a partisan legion, which he commanded. When Savannah was recaptured the Legislature voted him the forfeited house of a Tory. In 1788 he was elected Governor, but declined on account of youth and inexperience. He sat in the First Federal Congress and was elected United States Senator in 1793. office he resigned in 1795, and was elected to the State Senate in order to force the revocation of the Yazoo land grants. He was an influential member of the Constitutional Convention of 1798. and was elected Governor the same year. In 1801 he returned to the United States Senate, and sat until his death. He was a follower of Jefferson in politics.

This

JACKSON, JAMES (1777-1867). An American physician, brother of Charles Jackson, the graduated at Harvard in 1796, and studied medijurist. He was born in Newburyport, Mass. ; cine with Dr. Holyoke of Salem, and in London. In 1800 he began practice in Boston. He was the first physician of the General Hospital in Boston, which, with Dr. Warren, he had established. clinical medicine in Harvard, and in 1812 proIn 1810 he was chosen professor of fessor of theory and practice there. He was several times elected president of the Massachusetts Medical Society. He wrote: On the Brunonian System (1809): Remarks on the Medical Effects of Dentition (1812); and Letters to a Young Physician (1885). Consult: Putnam, Memoir of Dr. James Jackson (Boston, 1905).

JACKSON, JAMES STRESHLEY (1823-62). An American soldier, born in Fayette County, Ky. He was educated at Jefferson College, and in Transylvania University, where he studied law. He practiced in Kentucky before and after the Mexican War, in which he fought as a lieutenant of volunteers enlisted by himself. He was sent to Congress in 1860. He served in the Federal Army during the Civil War as colonel of the Third Kentucky Cavalry, which he had organized. He fell on October 8, 1862, at the battle of Perryville, where he was one of the division

commanders under General McCook in the Army of the Ohio.

JACKSON, JOHN (1778-1831). An English portrait painter. He was born at Lastingham, Yorkshire, May 31, 1778, the son of a tailor. His early portraits were done in pencil weakly tinted with water-color. His first work in oils was a copy of Sir Joshua Reynolds's portrait of George Colman. Through the encouragement and patronage of Lord Mulgrave and Sir George Beaumont, he went to London in 1804, and the following year studied at the Royal Academy, where he formed the friendship of Wilkie and Haydon. Jackson first exhibited at the Academy in 1804, and in 1806 exhibited a group of Lady Mulgrave and Hon. Mrs. Phillips. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1815. In 1819 he went to Rome, where he painted a portrait of Canova, one of his best works, exhibited in 1820 and at the Royal Academy. He was elected member of the Roman Academy of Saint Luke, to which he sent yearly from five to eight portraits. Jackson was devotedly pious, but his religious opinions were gloomy, and tended to injure his health and spirits. He died in London, June 1, 1831. He was a facile painter, and excelled as a colorist. His portraits were wanting in vivacity, but strong and true in character, while his color was rich and subdued. His finest female head was that of Lady Dover, and his finest male portrait that of Flaxman. The National Gallery contains many of his portraits, among which are those of Rev. William Holwell Carr, Catherine Stephens, Sir John Soane, his own portrait, and one of John Hunt (copy from Reynolds). The South Kensington Museum has a portrait of Earl Gray and six sketches made in Holland and Belgium. The British Museum contains a valuable collection of his drawings.

JACKSON, JOHN ADAMS (1825-79). An American sculptor, born at Bath, Maine, November 5. 1825. He studied first in Boston, and later in the atelier of Suisse in Paris. He executed portrait busts of many celebrated people of his time, including one of Webster after medals and portraits loaned by his family. At Florence, in 1853, he modeled busts of Adelaide Phillips, T. Buchanan Read, and others. In 1854, at Boston, he made a bust portrait of Wendell Phillips, which is in the Boston Museum, one of George S. Hilliard, for the New York Historical Society, and another of Dr. Lyman Beecher, which was the property of the late Henry Ward Beecher. In 1858 he returned to New York; but in 1860, being commissioned to make a statue in bronze of Kane, the Arctic explorer, he went to Florence to execute the work, and continued to reside in that city. There he produced most of his ideal subjects, which display an extensive knowledge of anatomy and graceful treatment. Among these are "Eve and the Dead Abel" (1862), "Titania and Nick Bottom," "Cupid Stringing His Bow," "The Culprit Fay," "Dawn." "Peace," the "Morning Glory" (a medallion), "Musidora" (1873), "Hylos," and "Il Pastorello," an Italian shepherd boy. Among his larger works are a group for the southern gate-house of Central Park, New York (1869), and the Soldiers' Monument at Lynn, Mass. (1874). He died at Pracchia, Tuscany, August 30, 1879.

JACKSON, MERCY BRISBEE (1802-77). An American physician. She was born at Harwich,

Mass., and graduated at the New England Fe male Medical College in 1860, though she had previously practiced at Plymouth and Boston for more than thirty years. She was admitted to the American Institute of Homœopathy in Philadelphia in 1871, and was the first woman to obtain that honor. She afterwards became a member of the Massachusetts and the Boston Homœopathic societies, and in 1873 was made professor of the diseases of children in the Boston University School of Medicine, which position she was filling at the time of her death.

was

She

married twice, first to the Rev. John Brisbee, and after his death to Capt. Daniel Jackson, of Plymouth. She delivered many lectures on the subjects of temperance and woman suffrage, and was a contributor to the Woman's Journal.

JACKSON, PATRICK TRACY (1780-1847). An American manufacturer, born at Newburyport, Mass.; brother of Dr. James Jackson. He was apprenticed to a merchant, made several voyages to the Far East, and engaged afterwards at Boston in the India trade, in which he acquired a fortune. With his brother-in-law, Francis C. Lowell, of Boston, he engaged in cotton manufacture, and after several experiments succeeded in producing a model from which a power loom was constructed in 1814 by Paul Moody. They purchased their first mill in 1813, at Waltham

the first that converted the raw cotton into cioth. In 1821 he purchased land on the Merrimack River, on which the Merrimack Manufacturing Company erected a number of mills under his auspices. This was the nucleus of the present city of Lowell. In 1830 he obtained a

charter for a railroad from Lowell to Boston, which, under his direction, was completed in 1835. He took a deep interest in the moral and intellectual welfare of his operatives.

JACKSON, SAMUEL MACAULEY (1851–). An American educator and author, born in New

York City. He graduated in 1870 at the College of the City of New York, in 1873 at the Union Theological Seminary, and in 1873-76 studied at the University of Leipzig. From 1876 to 1880 he was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Norwood (Bergen County), N. J., and in 1895 was appointed professor of Church history in New York University. In 1878-80 he was assistant editor of the Bible Dictionary of Philip Schaff, on whose Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge (1880-84), an adaptation of the Realencyclopädie of Herzog, he was also the associate and managing editor. Other publications with which he was editorially connected were the Cyclopædia of Living Divines (1885-86); Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia (1893-95); the Standard Dictionary (1893-95); and Webster's International Dictionary (1900). He prepared the first extensive bibliography of foreign missions ever published (1891). He was editor-in-chief of the Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (1891), of the "Heroes of the Reformation Series" (1898 et seq.), and of the Handbooks for Practical Workers in Church and Philanthropy (1898 et seq.). For The New International Encyclopædia he contributed to the department of religious biography. For the "Heroes of the Reformation Series" he wrote Huldreich Zwingli (1901), the first original biography of the Swiss leader published in Eng

lish, based on the sources, and supplemented by an edition of Zwingli Selections (1901).

JACKSON, SHELDON (1834–). An American Presbyterian missionary and educator. He was born at Minaville, N. Y.; was graduated from Union College in 1855, and from Princeton Theological Seminary in 1858. He entered the home mission work, organized the first Presby terian churches in Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Arizona, and was especially prominent in Alaska. He was made Government agent of education in Alaska in 1885; published the First Annual Report on Education in Alaska (1886); and conceived and carried out the plan of introducing reindeer into Alaska, working first with private and later with Government support. In 1898 he was United States special agent to procure a Lapp colony in Alaska. Jack son was a successful speaker on missions, was moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly

in 1897, was author of Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast (1880), and in 1896 as

sisted in the foundation of a missionary college

in Utah.

JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN, generally known as Stonewall Jackson (1824-63). A famous American soldier, born January 21, 1824, of Scotch-Irish-English stock, at Clarksburg in western Virginia (now West Virginia). At an early age he was left to the care of an uncle, a farmer and miller, under whom he was trained in business methods and received some opportunity for study. When only eighteen he became sheriff of the county, and soon after was admitted to West Point, where, in 1846, he graduated number eighteen in a class of seventy, which included McClellan, Reno, Gibbon, Pickett, Maury, A. P. Hill, and Wilcox. He was assigned as second lieutenant to the First Artillery, ordered to join Magruder's battery, then serving in Mexico, almost immediately achieved prominence in the operations under General Scott, and was brevet ted captain and major for gallantry at Contreras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec. From 1848 to 1851 he was stationed at Fort Hamilton, and first became noted for that strong religious tendency which afterwards caused him to be known as the Havelock of the Confederate Army. On March 27, 1851, he resigned from the army and became professor of natural and experimental philosophy and artillery tactics in the Lexington Military Institute. In 1856 he visited Europe. On April 21, 1861, soon after the outbreak of the Civil War, Jackson was ordered by direction of the Governor of Virginia to report with his corps of cadets at Richmond for active service. He was commissioned a colonel, was placed in command of the Virginia forces, and was sent to Harper's Ferry. In July of the same year his troops were organized into a brigade (afterwards the 'Stonewall Brigade'), and he was appointed a brigadier-general. When the Confederates under Johnston moved from Harper's Ferry toward Manassas, Jackson's brigade was in the van and among the first to get into position. In the first battle of Bull Run, the South Carolinians were sorely pressed, and their commander, General Bee, seeking to encourage them, is said to have cried out, "Look at Jacksonthere he stands like a stone wall," thus originating the historic sobriquet. In September Jackson was promoted to be major-general, and

was assigned to command the Confederate forces in the lower Shenandoah Valley. The duty assigned him is thus described by General Johnston: "After it became evident that the valley was to be invaded by an army too strong to be encountered by Jackson's division, that officer was instructed to endeavor to employ the inself to the danger of defeat, by keeping so near vaders in the valley, but without exposing him, the enemy as to keep him from making any considerable detachment to reinforce McClellan, but not so near that he might be compelled to fight." In pursuance of this plan, Jackson fell back up the valley before Banks, who occupied Winchester. Late in March, 1862, the Fed

eral forces were withdrawn to Manassas as an

outpost of the defenses of Washington, and were Underestimating closely followed by Jackson. the strength of the Federal rear guard under 23d) upon that officer's position at Kernstown, General Shields, he made a sharp attack (March three miles south of Winchester, but after a tiring in good order, with the loss of several severe struggle of three hours was repulsed, rehundred men and one piece of artillery. While this affair was a reverse to the Confederates, the boldness shown by Jackson confirmed the Federal authorities in the determination to retain McDowell in front of the capital, in spite of MeClellan's protest. Jackson finally retired to Staunton, from which point (having increased his available force to 16,000 men) he confronted 30,000 men under Banks and Frémont with three columns, attacked the Federal detachments in detail, and succeeded in out-manoeuvring them, particularly in the affair at McDowell (May 8th). Banks, finding his communications threatened, fell back across the Potomac, closely fol lowed by Jackson. Soon afterwards Jackson re-occupied Winchester. About May 30th, finding his communications with Richmond threatened by a fresh Federal force under McDowell, he began a rapid and masterly retreat up the valley, halting at certain favorable points and engaging his pursuers successfully, particularly at Cross Keys and Port Republic (June 6th, 8th, and 9th). Jackson's valley campaign was a conspicuous illustration of his characteristics as a leader, the extraordinary mobility of his infantry earning for it the title of 'foot cavalry?

under Gen. J. E. Johnston, was lying in front of Early in April, 1862, the Confederate army, Richmond. McClellan, at the head of the Army of the Potomac, was marching up the peninsula to invest that city, meeting with but little opposition save at Yorktown and Williamsburg (qq.v.). Gen. R. E. Lee was placed in command of the Confederate forces after the battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks (May 31st-June 1st), in which Johnston had been severely wounded, and one of his first acts was to order General Jackson to join him with his corps. The junction was effected with Jackson's customary promptness and skill, and he suddenly appeared (June 26th) at Mechanicsville, upon the right flank of the Federal army, which fell back after a smart engagement to Gaines's Mill, where, on the following day, the battle was renewed. Jackson's corps took part in the movements attending McClellan's 'change of base,' and was especially prominent at Malvern Hill (July 1st). Soon afterwards Jackson confronted Gen