id., Un nonce du Pape en Moscovie (Paris, 1884); Waliszewski, Ivan the Terrible (Philadelphia, 1904). See RUSSIA.

I'VANHOE. A novel by Sir Walter Scott (1819) and the name of the hero.

IVAN IVANOVITCH, ê-vän' é-vä'no-vich (Russ., John Johnson). See NATIONAL NICK

NAMES.

IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK, ê-vä'no-võ väz'nyě-syěnsk'. A manufacturing town of Russia, in the Government of Vladimir, situated on the river Uvod, 82 miles by rail north of Vladimir (Map: Russia, H 3). It consists of the village of Ivanovo on the right bank of the river, and Voznesensk on the left bank, incorporated in 1871 as the town of Ivanovo-Voznesensk. It is an important centre of the Russian cotton manufacture, which gives employment to a great part of the inhabitants, not only of the town, but also of the surrounding district. There are also large cotton-printing establishments in the town. The annual production exceeds $5,000,000. IvanovoVoznesensk is connected by a branch line with the Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod Railway. Population, in 1897, 54,208; in 1900, 64,628.

IVES, HALSEY COOLEY (1846-). An American artist and museum director, born in Montour Falls, N. Y., and educated in the public schools, at South Kensington, London, and under Piatowski. He had charge of the Art Department at the Chicago World's Fair of 1893 and also of that in Saint Louis in 1904, where he received a grand prize for services to education. He several times represented the United States government as a commissioner abroad with reference to art matters. In 1896 he became director of the Museum and School of Fine Arts in Saint Louis, Mo.

IVES, LEVI SILLIMAN (1797-1867). An American theologian. He was born at Meriden, Conn.; was brought up on his father's farm in Turin, N. Y.; served during the first year of the War of 1812, and studied at Hamilton College; but in 1819 left the Presbyterian for the Episcopal Church, and after study in New York was ordained in 1823. He preached at Trinity Church, Philadelphia, from 1823 to 1827; at Christ Church, Lancaster, Pa., in 1827; and in Christ Church, New York, until 1831, when he became Bishop of North Carolina. There his Tractarian views brought him into trouble; he recanted, but again embraced them; and was declared deposed by his act of submission to the Pope in 1852. His apologia, The Trials of a Mind in Its Progress to Catholicism, was published in 1854. Ives became professor in Saint Joseph's Seminary.

ÍVIZA, or ÍBIZA, 'Bê-tha. The larger of the two Pityuse Isles of the Balearic group, belonging to Spain (Map: Spain, F 3). It is situated about 60 miles from the mainland and 56 miles southwest of the island of Majorca. Area, about 230 square miles. The island is mountainous and well wooded, with fertile valleys. The principal industry is the production of salt by the evaporation of sea-water led into large shaÏlow lagoons. The population was 23,556 in 1900. The chief town, Iviza, on the southeastern coast, has a fair harbor, and a large trade in salt. Population, in 1900, 6327.

IVO OF CHARTRES, shär'tr', SAINT (c.10401116.) A medieval Churchman, Bishop of Chartres, sometimes called Yvo Carnotensis. He was

VOL. XI.-5.

born in Beauvais, studied at Bec, rose to the provostship of the Canonry of Saint Quentin in Beauvais, and in 1090 was consecrated Bishop of Chartres by Pope Urban II. Ivo is one of the heroic figures in French medieval history, appearing now as the dauntless opponent of royal injustice, and now as the determined foe to clerical wrongdoing. He figures in the investiture controversy of his time as one of the mediating and mollifying forces, endeavoring to see that both Church and State were properly treated. (See INVESTITURE.) He compiled a collection of canon law which is one of the most important precedents to Gratian's. His letters are one of the sources for the history of his time; a French translation was published at Chartres, 1885. His works are in Migne, Patrol. Lat., clxi., clxii.

IVORY (OF. ivurie, ivoire, Fr. ivoire, It. avario, ML. ebureum, from Lat. ebur, ivory, from Egypt. ābū, āb, Copt. ebou, ebu, elephant). The name formerly given to the main substance of the teeth of all animals, but it is now restricted to that modification of dentine or tooth-substance which in transverse sections shows lines of different colors running in circular arcs, and forming by their decussation minute lozenge-shaped spaces. By this character, which is represented by every portion of any transverse section of an elephant's tusk, true ivory may be distinguished from every other kind of tooth-substance, and from every counterfeit, whether derived from tooth or bone. Although no other teeth, except those of the elephant, present this characteristic, many other animals, such as the walrus, narwhal, and hippofrom their large size and from their density, can potamus, possess teeth, horns, or tusks which, be used for the same purpose in the arts as those for which true ivory is employed. In the case of the elephant the tusk is formed by the prolongation of the upper incisor, while the tusk of the hippopotamus and other animals is a prolonged canine. Perhaps with the ancients 'ivory' was used in the broader sense, for Pliny tells us that in Ethiopia ivory was so plentiful that it was used for door-posts, fences, and cattle-stalls. The ivory of the tusks of the African elephant is held in the highest estimation by the manufacturer, on account of its greater density and whiteness. The tusks are yellow or brown on the outside, but inside are snowy white. The tusks are of all sizes, from a few ounces in weight to more than 100 pounds each. Russia obtains large quantities from the tusks of fossil elephants. This product, called fossil ivory, is composed of calcium phosphate, 64; organic matter, 24; water, 11.15; calcium carbonate, 0.10. There are

various chemical processes by which it may be dyed various colors, as black, blue, green, yellow, red, and violet. Ivory articles can be made flexible and semi-transparent by immersion in a solution of phosphoric acid of specific gravity 1.130, till they become translucent. They are then to be taken out, washed with water, and dried with a soft cloth, when they are found to be as flexible as leather. They harden on exposure to dry air, but resume their pliancy when immersed in hot water. The opacity and elasticity of old ivory may sometimes be restored by boiling it in gelatin, but no satisfactory method for restoring its whiteness has yet been discovered.

The tusks of the elephant have from very early periods constituted an important article of trade,

in consequence of their great beauty as a material for ornamental manufactures, and even works of fine art. Ivory is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. Solomon had a throne of ivory and gold. The Egyptians and Assyrians made much use of this material in ornamental work. With the Greeks it became a most important material, and by the hands of the sculptor Phidias a statue was produced of the Olympian Jupiter of such marvelous beauty and imposing majesty that it was considered a misfortune to die without having seen it. The pupils of Phidias made many of these colossal images (chryselephantine statues), the bodies being in ivory and the drapery in gold. It was also extensively used by the Romans, who were supplied from Africa, and by them its use was diffused over the whole of Europe.

During the Renaissance ivory was much used for inlaid work in furniture, and the art of carving it was brought to a high state of skill. Caskets, statuettes, mirror-cases, chess-men, and many other articles were made of this material. The town of Dieppe in France has had its ivory factories since the fifteenth century. At present the demand for ivory is increasing, owing to the great taste and skill of some of the artists who work in this material, and, as the supply in creases but very slowly, it is likely to become very costly. The art of working in ivory doubtless had its origin in India, where it has always been a much valued material. In China and Japan, especially the former country, the decorative value of ivory is highly prized, and an infinite care and patience are shown by the Chinese in his carving on this material.

In Europe and America, however, ivory has many uses and a very high commercial value, cutside the realm of the fine arts. It is manufactured principally into billiard balls, pianokeys, combs, knife-handles, and numerous fancy articles. Ivory is difficult to cut, requiring the hardest and sharpest tools, but it is easily sawed or filed. Large plates of veneer are obtained by cutting a spiral shaving round the tusks with what is known as a 'reciprocating saw.' It is polished with various powders. Every scrap of material is saved in the manufacture of ivory, the scraps, shavings, and dust being converted into ivory black or artists' pigments.

The tusks of the African elephant furnish at once the greatest and best parts of the ivory of

commerce.

African tusks sometimes reach a length of 9 feet and weigh 100 pounds or more. Those of the Indian elephant are smaller, averaging under 50 pounds. Tusks of extinct mammoths have been found 12 feet long and weighing 200 pounds. Africa exports about 1,764,000 pounds of ivory annually, the product being distributed as follows: Zanzibar, 441,000 pounds; Niger territories, 166,000 pounds; Gaboon, Lagos, etc., 165,000 pounds; Mozambique, 220,000 pounds; Loanda and Benguela, 221,000 pounds; Cape Colony, 110,000 pounds; Egypt, 331,000 pounds; Red Sea Coast, 110,000 pounds. The principal markets are London, Liverpool, and Antwerp. Consult Maskell, Ivories (New York, 1905).

IVORY, VEGETABLE. The fruit of a handsome palm, Phytelephas Macrocarpa, which grows in the Peruvian Andes, on the banks of the river Magdalena, and in other parts of South Amer ica. The stem is short and procumbent, but

A Scotch

IVORY, Sir JAMES (1765-1842). mathematician, born at Dundee, and educated at the University of Saint Andrews, where he exhibited special proficiency in mathematics, and graduated M.A. in 1784. In 1786, after further study at Edinburgh, he abandoned the theological career for which he was preparing, taught in the Dundee Academy for three years, and from 1789 to 1804 engaged in commercial pursuits as manager and partner of a flax-spinning mill. In his leisure hours, however, he continued his mathematical studies; became known by learned contributions to the Royal Society of Edinburgh; and in 1804 received the appointment of professor of mathematics in the Royal Military College, then at Marlow, Buckinghamshire. He retired in 1819 on a pension which was augmented in 1831, when he was knighted. His essays and memoirs, published from 1796 to 1842, in the Transactions of the Royal Societies of Edinburgh and London, evince remarkable and acute analyt

ical power. His resolution of the attractions of ellipsoids, enunciated in 1809, has been known ever since as 'Ivory's theorem.' In 1814 he received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society for "a new method of determining a comet's orbit;" in 1826 the royal medal for a paper on refractions, which was eulogized by Laplace for its masterly analysis; and again in 1839 the royal medal for his "Theory of Astronomical Refractions." He was elected to honorary membership in the most learned societies of Great Britain and other lands.

IVORYBILL. The great Southern woodpecker (Campephilus principalis), now confined to the cypress swamps of the Gulf States, and nearly extinct. It is one of the largest of the tribe, and so impressed Linné by its size (length, 20 inches) and grandeur, that he called it 'prince.'

HEAD OF IVORY BILL.

Its plumage is glossy black, with the secondary and shorter primaries pure white, and a white stripe down each side of the neck and along the scapulars, meeting in the middle of the back. The long crest of the male is scarlet, but that of the female is bluish-black; the bill is ivory-yellow, straight, and chisel-like, capable of drilling holes in hard wood, and reaching the deeply buried grubs upon which it mainly feeds. This fine species was formerly a resident from the Potomac and Ohio rivers southward, and the early ornithologists have much to say of it. Audubon says its food included grapes, and that its nest was a hole, like that of other woodpeckers, dug by the alternate labor of both mates, always in a living tree. He remarks its graceful flight-the bird seems merely to swing itself from the top of one tree to that of another in an elegantly curved line; and describes its notes as clear, loud, yet very plaintive. These birds were never very numerous, since they were constantly killed by the Indians, who valued highly their heads as ornaments and as symbols of dignity and courage. The frontiersmen, with barbaric love of color, copied the custom, and adorned their shotpouches and caps with the gaudy crests, and ignorant Southern farmers killed them and all woodpeckers under the mistaken notion that they were destroying the forest trees.

IVORY-CARVING. Under this head must be included sculpture in bone, in vegetable, in walrus or narwhal ivory, and in fossil ivory, as well as that carved in the ivory of the elephant. It is, therefore, the whole subject of delicate and minute ornamental carving, except as done in wood and in fine hard stones. Pieces of reindeerhorn, as well as bone, are found with incised carvings on them under prehistoric remains; but horn is not often cut with the sharp tool for

decorative purposes; it is usually softened and molded. In Egyptian tombs there have been found statuettes, handles of weapons, boxes, and the like, very delicately sculptured; and others have been found in Nineveh, especially tablets carved with significant figures in low relief. Some of the Egyptian pieces were of a time as early as 2000 B.C.; those of Nineveh, of the tenth century B.C. The most famous use of ivory in antiquity was in connection with the chryselephantine (q.v.) statues, of which, however, no remains are left.

Roman Imperial time; consular diptychs and There are many carved ivories of the later other tablets for writing, with bas-reliefs at the top and on the back. The history of sculpture during the times of degeneration from the fourth to the eighth century can best be studied by means of these small but highly finished works. Under the Byzantine emperors the diptychs were still made, and there was much use of ivory in book-covers, as in the later Middle Ages.

The earlier Middle Ages used oblong caskets, made of solid blocks of ivory on the exterior, or of bone; or, in some cases, made of wood, which was concealed by the carved plates of ivory which cover the exterior. The backs of mirrors also and mirror-cases were made of this material, and elaborately carved throughout the Middle Ages. Purely devotional objects, too, were made, such as shrines, tabernacles, and the like; and diptychs mounted with silver or silver-gilt hinges and clasps were manufactured for travelers, in which the preferred scenes and incidents were represented; thus, one might be devoted to the Passion of Christ, and another to the legend of some saint. The heads of pastoral staves and crosiers are sometimes of this material and elaborately carved. The finest pieces of mediæval work in these materials are, however, the admirable statuettes, such as those of the Madonna holding the Child, one of which, small but of exquisite workmanship, is in the South Kensington Museum; while another, perhaps the finest ivory carving known, is in the sacristy of the little Church of Saint Pons, at Villeneuve-lesAvignon on the Rhône. This astonishing piece is admirably adorned with delicate painting and gilding; it is of unusually great size, and belongs to the finest sculpture of the fourteenth century.

A few pieces of carved ivory and bone of Saracenic or Moorish work have reached Europe; but of Asiatic art, by far the best known and the most valuable is that of China and Japan. Japanese art seems indeed to have followed its ing the artistic treatment of very small masses strong predilection for minuteness in undertakof these hard materials. The little netsukes are more often of ivory than of any other substance, and their almost infinite variety and their spirited character are well known. Less known are the highly wrought boxes carved with reliefs, both high and low, and adorned with little figures in the round which serve as knobs for the cover, or even for the feet of the piece.

In modern Europe, beginning with the sixteenth century, portraits in relief were common; these being carved in ivory with great fineness, and sometimes delicately colored in the costume, the eyes and hair, and the accessories. The whole school of ivory-carving is known by the name of 'Dieppe ivories,' these being generally of the eighteenth century, and most commonly portrait

busts or statuettes of mythological or Christian subjects. Consult: Wyatt, Notices of Sculpture in Ivory (London, 1856); Maskell, Ivories, Ancient and Mediaval (ib., 1875); Graeven, Frühchristliche und mittelalterliche Elfenbeinwerke (Vienna, 1901).

IVORY COAST. A French possession in West Africa, bounded on the north by the French Colony of Sénégal and the French Military Territories (about parallel 10° N.), on the east by the British Gold Coast, on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, and on the west by Liberia. The length of shore-line is about 400 miles, with Cape Palmas on the west. The area is estimated at 120,000 square miles. The coast is flat, and bordered in the eastern part along the gulf by lagoons, of which the Grand Lahou, the Grand Bassam, and the Assini are the largest. The only good approach for ships is at the mouth of the Komoe. The coast strip is generally about 35 miles wide. The plateau of the interior is covered to a large extent with impassable forests-the chief material resource of the colony, and at the same time the most formidable obstacle in the way of exploration and development. The forest region is interspersed with large stretches of savannas, which characterize especially the Baule district. The country becomes gradually higher through the Kong territory, being highest in the Mina, the region of the northern boundary. The Cavally River forms the western boundary. The Bandama, Sassandra, Songan, and Tanno are the other rivers, none of them of much commercial value.

The climate is generally hot and unhealthful. The year is divided into four seasons. The main rainy season lasts from March to July, with a mean temperature of nearly 82° F.; a short dry season continues through August and September, with a mean temperature of 79°; during October and November there are rains again, and a rise in the average temperature to over 81°; in December the hot and dry season sets in, with a mean temperature of over 82°. The vegetation is exceedingly rich, and the forests abound with coffee and resinous plants, oil-palms, and dyewoods. The chief products of the colony are palm oil and kernels, mahogany, and rubber. Ivory and gold-dust are also exported. The natives cultivate corn and rice. Coffee cultivation promises to be important. The commerce has increased remarkably during the last few years, having risen from $538,480 in 1890 to $2,682,000 in 1905, the exports for the latter year amounting to $1,474, 000. Only a small portion of the trade is with France. Grand Bassam and Grand Lahou are the chief commercial points, the former having direct communication with France. The colony is administered by a Governor, assisted by an administrative council. The local Government is under the Governor-General of French West Africa (q.v.). The colony is divided into fourteen circles. The budget balanced in 1906 at $581,000, and the colony is self-supporting. The seat of administration is Bingerville, formerly called Adjamé. Official estimates place the population at 1,955,000. The chief tribes on the coast are the Apollonians and the Los. The tribes of the forest region are on a very low plane of civilization, cannibalism being practiced in some parts. French occupation of the Ivory Coast dates from 1842. Forts were then established at Grand

Bassam, Assini, and Dalu. They were evacuated in 1870, and reoccupied in 1885, when the exploration of the interior was begun. As a result of Captain Binger's expedition during 1885-87, a considerable part of the interior came under the protectorate of France, and with the conquest of Samory's domains after a five years' resistance, French supremacy became practically established over the entire country.

Consult: Wahl, Nouvelle géographie générale de la France et les colonies (Paris, 1901); Petit, Les colonies françaises (Paris, 1901).

IVORY-SHELL. A gastropod of the genus Eburna, so called from its white, solid, smooth shell. The epidermis is usually wanting. The white shell is sometimes spotted with dark red, and the animal is spotted like the shell. species inhabit the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, as well as the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope, Japan, China, and Australia.

The

IVREA, ê-vra'à. A city in the Province of Turin, Italy, 38 miles north of the city of Turin, on the left bank of the Dora Baltea, which is crossed here by a Roman bridge (Map: Italy, B 2). It has an extensive castle, now used as a prison, and a cathedral (often restored), a seminary, a lyceum, and a gymnasium. It is the seat of a bishop. Ivrea markets wine, grain, and fruit, spins silk and weaves cotton, and has ironworks and dye-works. The ancient Eporedia was colonized by the Romans in B.C. 100, to command the roads over the Great and Little Saint Bernard. The town was the capital of the Margraviate of Ivrea which Charlemagne substituted for the Lombard Duchy. The margraves of Ivrea, Berengar II., his son, Adalbert II., and Arduin of Ivrea, were raised to the Italian throne. The last was finally obliged to yield before Henry II., who in 1019 annexed the margraviate to the Empire. In 1248 Ivrea was given as a fief to Count Thomas of Savoy, to whose posterity it descended. The French captured the town in 1554, 1641, and 1704. From 1800 to 1814 it was the capital of the French Department of Doire (Ital. Dora). Population (commune), in 1881, 10,413; in 1901, 11,528.

It is

IVRY-LA-BATAILLE, ê'vrê' lå bå'ti'y'. A village of France in the Department of Eure, on the river Eure, 40 miles west of Paris. noted as the scene of the great victory of Henry IV. of Navarre, March 14, 1590, over the Duke of Mayenne, which has been commemorated by an obelisk as well as by its name, La Bataille. It has manufactures of paints, billiard-balls, and musical instruments. Population, in 1901, 1034.

IVRY-SUR-SEINE, sur-sân'. A manufacturing town of France, in the Department of Seine, on the left bank of the river of that name, one mile above Paris (Map: Paris and Vicinity). It lies just outside the fortifications of Paris, and its own forts form part of the defenses of the capital. It has increased rapidly in population and importance during the last two decades, owing to its numerous industrial establishments, among others the great workshops of the Orleans Railroad. Its principal manufactures are musical instruments, soap, and chemical products. Population, 1901, 28,585; 1906, 33,198.

IVY (AS. ifig, OHG. ebarvi, ebah, ebahewi, Ger. Epheu, of uncertain origin). A name ap

plied to a number of climbing, creeping, and trailing plants, among them the English or common ivy, Boston or Japanese ivy, Virginia creeper, ground-ivy, and poison-ivy. The common ivy (Hedera Helix) is a well-known native of Europe, rare in the northern countries, which has been extensively introduced into the United States. Its long, creeping, branched stem, which climbs on trees and walls to a great height, and closely adheres to even very hard substances by means of abundant rootlets which it develops along its whole length, acquires in very aged plants the thickness of a man's neck. Its fivelobed, shining, stalked, evergreen leaves, clothing bare walls with green luxuriance, serve to throw off rain, and the rootlets of the stem extract moisture from the walls to which they cling, contrary to a common prejudice that ivy tends to produce dampness in walls. It injures trees principally by constriction. The flowering branches of ivy have ovate, entire leaves, very different from the others. Its small greenish flowers are produced in the beginning of winter, and the small black berries are ripened in the following year. The berries are eagerly eaten by many birds, although they have a pungent taste, and contain a peculiar bitter principle called hederin and an acid called hederic acid, which are also found in a gummy exudation obtained by incisions from the stem and occasionally used in varnish-making and in medicine as a depilatory and a stimulant. In Egypt the ivy was sacred to Osiris, in Greece to Bacchus (Dionysus), whose thyrsus was represented as surrounded with ivy; the Romans mingled it in the laurel crowns of their poets.

COMMON IVY.

Several varieties of ivy are planted for ornamental purposes, of which that generally known in Great Britain as Irish ivy and on the European Continent as English ivy is particularly esteemed for its large leaves and luxuriant growth. It is said to be a native of the Canary Isles. Ivy grows readily from cuttings. Hedera umbellifera, referred by some botanists to Osmoxylon amboinense, a native of Amboyna, is

said to produce a finely aromatic wood; and Hedera terebinthinacea, by some botanists called Heptapleurum stellatum, a Ceylonese species, yields a resinous substance which smells like turpentine. The Boston or Japanese ivy (Vitis inconstans or Ampelopsis tricuspidata) and the Virginia creeper (Vitis hederacea or Ampelopsis quinquefolia) belong to the same natural order as the grape. They are shrubby, hardy ornamental climbers, cling by tendrils opposite the leaves, and are especially attractive in their autumnal coloration. The Boston ivy has threelobed or trifoliate leaves, the Virginia creeper five leaflets upon rather long petioles. The Boston ivy clings closely to walls, is of rapid growth, and is one of the best hardy vines for city growing. The ground-ivy (Nepeta Glechoma) is a plant of the mint family that trails over the ground. The poison-ivy or poison-oak (Rhus Toxicodendron) somewhat resembles the Virginia creeper in the appearance of its leaves, and is sometimes mistaken for it. Its leaflets, however, are three in number, and are not palmately arranged upon a common leafstalk. This plant possesses an irritant poison, and bathing the affected parts in an alcoholic solution of lead acetate is highly recommended as a remedy. According to some botanists, the name Rhus Toxicodendron should be applied to a small southern shrub, and Rhus radicans to the common form. The German ivy (Gynoxys cordifolia, or Senecio scandens) is a plant belonging to the family Compositæ.

IVY LANE CLUB. A club founded in 1749 by Dr. Johnson. Its meetings were held at the King's Head, in Ivy Lane, London. See CLUBS.

IVY OWL. A fanciful name for the English tawny owl (Syrium aluco), which frequents ivygrown ruins. See OWL.

IWÁKURA, ē-wä'koo-rå, TOMOMI, Prince (1835-83). A Japanese statesman, born in Kioto, of one of the illustrious families of the great Minamoto (q.v.) clan. He became a Chamberlain in the Imperial household of the Mikado Komei (1847-66), father of the present Emperor, Mutsuhito (q.v.). He was one of the 88 out of the total number of 136 kugé, or Court nobles, who opposed the opening of the ports to foreign commerce. In the ebb and flow of the troubled politics of the time, Iwákura fell into disgrace and was banished. Later he became the agent and firm ally of the revolutionary leaders, and was the means of carrying through the palace revolution of January, 1868, by which the men in the progressive party got possession of the person of the Emperor and reconstructed the Government. In this Iwakura became one of the highest officers, and thenceforth one of the chief progressive leaders of the Empire, carrying through the abolition of the feudal system with vigor and wisdom. He never saw a foreigner until middle life; yet as Minister of Foreign Affairs he proved himself a match for the foreign envoys, and in 1872 led the great embassy to the treaty powers of the world to secure if possible some modification of the treaties with them. On his return he opposed the proposed war with Korea, and carried through the measure which commuted the hereditary pensions of the samurai (q.v.), by which the Treasury was relieved of heavy financial burdens and the nation enabled to enter upon a new phase of development. On