came a fellow there, and then head-master of the grammar school, Sandwich, Kent, for the remainder of his life. His Generall Historie of the Turkes from the First Beginning of that Nation (1603) was reprinted half a dozen times before the end of the century, and issued in an abridged form in two volumes in 1701. Dr. Johnson gave high praise to the clearness and purity of its elaborately arranged English, while both Byron and Southey owned Knolles a master of prose composition.

KNOLLYS, nōlz, Sir FRANCIS (c.1514-96). An English statesman. He was a gentleman pensioner at the Court of Henry VIII., and a member of Parliament from 1542. His aggressive Puritanism rendered the Continent safer for him than England during Queen Mary's reign, but Elizabeth called him to her Privy Council (1558), making him also vice-chamberlain of her household, and captain of halberdiers, while Lady Knollys, who was the Queen's first cousin, became a woman of the privy chamber. He was made Governor of Portsmouth in 1563, was sent on diplomatic service in Ireland in 1566, and was appointed treasurer of the royal household in 1572. The most interesting part of Knollys's career relates to his association with Mary, Queen of Scots, whose custodian he was at Carlisle Castle (1568), and afterwards at Bolton. He conscientiously strove to make a Protestant of her, and as conscientiously warned Elizabeth against holding her in prison without a trial; but finally voted for her speedy execution (1587). The following year he took command of the Hert fordshire and Cambridgeshire troops assembled to oppose a landing of Spaniards from the Armada. He was knighted three years before his

death. His letters are of more historical importance than his Parliamentary speeches or his religious tracts.

KNOLLYS, HANSERD (c.1599-1691). An English Baptist clergyman. He was born at Cawkwell, Lincolnshire; was educated at Cam bridge; and was compelled to flee to New England, where his vigorous attacks on infant bap tism speedily involved him in controversy with the authorities. Cotton Mather nicknamed him 'Mr. Absurd Knowless,' although he mentioned him as 'godly Ana-baptist.' He preached at Dover, N. H., 1638-41; and in the latter year, after a brief stay on Long Island, he returned to London, where, though frequently in trouble with the authorities, he was popular as a preacher. He published several works on theological subjects, and a Hebrew grammar; and left an autobiog raphy, edited by Kiffin (1692). The Hanserd Knollys Society, founded in London in 1845, for the publication of early Baptist writings, issued ten volumes, and then disbanded.

KNOLLYS, or KNOLLES, Sir ROBERT (c.1317-1407). An English soldier of fortune, born in Cheshire. His deserved reputation as a famous fighter was acquired chiefly in Brittany, where he was first remarked at the siege of La Roche d'Orient (1346), and he was one of the knights in the Combat of the Thirty in 1351, when he was taken prisoner. On his release, he took command of a body of freebooters, was custodian to certain Breton castles, and made marauding expeditions into Normandy with Henry of Lancaster (1356-57). As leader of the Great Company, he plundered forty castles in the valley

of the Loire, pillaged Auxerre in 1359, supported John de Montfort at the siege of Auray in 1364, and went with the Black Prince to Spain in 1367, but was recalled in 1370 to England, whose King, Edward III., was planning an invasion of France. Knollys was given charge of the expedition, which, with Calais as a starting-point, laid waste the country as far as Rheims, and to the environs of Paris itself, but it was unsuccessful in drawing the French into a battle, though they were deterred from invading Wales. Knollys returned don at the suppression of the Wat Tyler rebelto England in time to take the leadership in Lonlion, and for this he was given the freedom of the city. Part of the great wealth he had acquired through his raids he spent in endowing colleges and hospitals, and in rebuilding churches after his retirement to England.

KNOORHAAN, knōrʼhän (Dutch gurnet, lit. gristle-cock). In South Africa, a bustard (q.v.). KNORR, knôr, LUDWIG (1859-). A German chemist, best known for his work in synthesis, especially his discovery of the pyrazol compounds, of which antipyrine is most commonly used. He was born at Munich; studied there, at Heidelberg and Erlangen; and was appointed professor at Würzburg (1888), and at Jena (1889).

KNORTZ, knôrts, KARL (1841-). A German-American author and educator, born at Garbenheim near Wetzlar, where he studied at the Royal Gymnasium. He graduated at Heidelberg University in 1863, and went the same year to the United States. He taught German language and literature at Detroit (1866-68), at Oshkosh till 1871, at Cincinnati, and New York (1882), and dianapolis. In 1892 he was made superintendent also edited German papers in Cincinnati and Inof the German department in the public schools of Evansville, Ind. He translated Evangeline, Hiawatha, and The Courtship of Miles Standish (1872), and, in 1879, Whittier's Snow Bound and Whitman's Leaves of Grass, and he published in Berlin a Geschichte der nordamerikanischen Litteratur (1891). Besides literary essays and works upon child education, he wrote Märchen und Sagen der nordamerikanischen Indianer (1871); Amerikanische Skizzen (1876); Modern American Lyrics (1880); Aus dem Wigwam (1880); Kapital und Arbeit in Amerika (1881); and Amerikanische Lebensbilder (1884).

KNOT (also gnat, dialectic knat, knet; derived, according to popular etymology, from AS. Cnūt, the bird). A cosmopolitan snipe (Tringa canuCanute, who was said to have been very fond of tus), 10 or 11 inches long, and more than 20 across the wings. The upper parts are black, white, and rufous; in summer the under parts are rufous, while in winter they are white. The breeding habits are almost unknown, and the eggs are known only from a single specimen found by Gen. A. W. Greely, U. S. A., and described as light pea-green closely spotted with brown. Knots are generally found in flocks, feeding on small crustaceans and mollusks, and probing the ground like snipes. In summer the knot is to be found only in the far North, where it seems to be circumpolar, but in winter it migrates far to the south in all directions from its summer home, so that it is found along the shores of all the continents. It is a favorite shore-bird with gunners, who know it as 'robin-snipe' and 'gray snipe,' and its flesh is delicious.

KNOT-GRASS. A trailing weed. See POLY

GONACEÆ.

KNOT-HORN. Any one of the large assemblage of moths included in the family Phycitidæ. The name is derived from the fact that the males frequently have the last joint of the antennæ swollen. The Phycitida are usually sombrecolored little moths with rather narrow fore wings, and broad hind wings. Their larvæ are very diverse in their habits. Some, like the

larvæ of Ephestia, infest groceries, feeding upon dried figs or in flour-mills upon flour and grain.

Others inhabit silken cases on the bark of trees. Still others attack living fruit. One is the cranberry fruit-worm (Mineola vaccinii). Others web leaves together, as the rascal leaf-crumpler (Mineola indiginella). Still others, like Dakruma coccidivora, feed upon living scale-insects. One member of this group (Erastria scitula) preys upon the black scale of the olive and orange in Southern Europe, and has recently been introduced into California for the purpose of helping fruit-growers to destroy injurious scale-insects.

KNOTT, JAMES PROCTOR (1830-). An American lawyer and politician, born in Marion County, Ky. He was educated there, but finished his law studies after his removal in 1850 to Memphis, Mo., where eight years later he was elected to the State Legislature. He was Attorney-General from 1859 until 1862, when he returned to the practice of his profession in Kentucky. Elected to Congress in 1866, 1868, and 1874, he was noted for his humorous method of dealing with public questions, attracting particular attention by a famous speech concerning Duluth, Minn. From 1883 to 1887 he was Governor of Kentucky. He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of the State in 1891, and the following year took the chair of civics and economics in Centre College, Danville, Ky., where in 1894 he was appointed law professor and dean of the law faculty, from which position he resigned in 1901.

KNOTTING AND SPLICING. A knot is a

loop or combination of loops and turns joining different parts of a rope or parts of two or more ropes. A splice is a more intimate junction of parts than a knot, the lay of the rope being opened, and the ends tucked in so that the size and character of the rope at the place where the splice is made is not greatly changed. Knots are of many kinds and have many uses, but their employment elsewhere is insignificant compared with that on board ship, where they have obtained their full development. They owe their mportance to the frictional resistance of the rope, which prevents the parts of the rope from slipping and thus untying the knot.

Knots may be divided into two principal types, those which are tied without separating the strands of a rope and those made by opening out the strands. The first type may be divided into: (a) made with two ends of the same or of different ropes knotted together; (b) made with the end of a rope passed around or knotted about some object; (c) knots made with the end of a 1ope knotted about itself; (d) seizings, in which a small rope is tied around a larger one. The second type of knots is divided into: (a) knots made in the lay of the rope by separating the strands; and (b) splices, in which two parts of

a rope, or the ends of a rope, or of two ropes, are joined.

The simplest knot is the overhand (Fig. 1); its use is chiefly to hold temporarily the end of a rope from slipping away from the man who intends to knot it permanently at the proper time; overhand knots are also tied in the ends of ropes to prevent their slipping through a block or sheave, i.e. unreeving. In its ordinary use it therefore belongs to class b of the first group, but it may be made in the ends of a rope passed about a spar, placing it in classes a and c simultaneously. By making a second overhand knot on top of the first we get the square or reef knot (Fig. 2), the commonest and most useful knot known. It differs from the granny knot (Fig. 3) in the manner of making the second overhand knot on top of the first. The square knot holds crush down when subjected to strain. The granny firmly, and is quite easily untied, as it does not knot does not hold nearly so well, almost invariably slipping a little and frequently pulling apart; and when it does hold the parts jam together so tightly that it is untied with great difficulty. The sheet or becket bend (Fig. 4) is first cousin to a square knot; instead of slipping one end through the bight of the other rope it is pushed across underneath its own bends. Carrick bends (Figs. 5 and 6) are not much used, but are occasionally employed in bending two hawsers together. The blackwall hitch (Fig. 8) is used to attach quickly a rope to a hook; the double blackwall (Fig. 1) is more secure if the rope is stiff or large in proportion to the hook and therefore liable to slip.

The bowline (Fig. 12) is a very useful knot. It serves to form a loop in the end of a rope which will not slip or draw down, and yet which can be instantly untied; this latter property is due to the fact that it will not jam tightly and the parts are free to be separated the instant the strain is removed. The running bowline (Fig. 13a) is simply a bowline so made that its loop incloses the rope on which it is made. A bowline on a bight (Fig. 13b) is made, as its name indiit the first part of the operation is the same as cates, on the bight or loop of a rope. In making tying a bowline; but instead of carrying the bight around the parts on which the knot is made the loop is opened out and slipped over its own parts. The catspaw (Fig. 9) is used to shorten up the loop of a rope for the purpose of hooking a tackle to it. When neither end of a rope can be reached, and it is desirable to shorten it between two points, the sheepshank (Fig. 17) is used. The figure-of-eight knot is rarely used except for ornamental work. The midshipman's hitch (Fig. 18) is also rarely used. The marlingspike hitch (Fig. 19) is very common, and is used in passing seizings and the like. It is an easy way to attach temporarily the ends of a rope to a heaver or marlingspike for pulling on it; the spike or heaver may be quickly withdrawn when the pull is finished.

The studdingsail (pronounced stu'n's'l) tack bend (Fig. 7) is used to bend the tack to the sail and for other purposes as a slipping hitch; the studdingsail halliard bend (Fig. 20) is used to bend the halliards to the studdingsail yard and to bend other ropes to spars. The fisherman's bend (Fig. 21) and the magnus hitch (Fig. 16) have a great variety of uses. The timber-hitch (Fig. 14b) is used in hoisting timber and similar

articles; the timber and half-hitch (Fig. 15) is used for hoisting or towing heavy timbers. The two half-hitches form a convenient slipping hitch. The clove-hitch (Fig. 14c) is one of the most useful knots known, and is used more than any other knot except the square knot. The inside and outside clinches (Figs. 10a and 10b) are used when the end of a rope is to be made fast to a heavy object, and yet leave the rope clear to work through a pulley or sheave close up to the object; clinches were much used in bending hawsers and cables to anchors.

Seizings are used to tie two parts of a rope together or to secure a rope to another object. The common forms are shown in the sketches (Figs. 23a, 23b, and 23c), but there are modifications of these forms too numerous to mention. The turk's head (Fig. 24) is a variety of seizing put around a single part of rope; it is used on footropes to keep them from slipping through the eyes of the stirrups.

Wall knots, wall and crown, manrope knots, and all the other knots of class a of the second type are used to form a solid and more or less ornamental knot in a rope to prevent its slipping through a block, hole, or eye.

SPLICES are used to join two pieces of rope together or form an eve at the end of a rope. The principal kinds are the eye-splice (Figs. 22a and 22b), short splice (Figs. 24a, 24b, and 24c), and long splice (Figs. 25a, 25b, and 25c, which are shown progressively). A selvagee (Fig. 26) is made of rope yarns laid up loosely and held together with marline hitches. A grommet (Fig. 27) is made of a single long strand of rope laid up on itself to form a three-stranded ring. A cringle (Fig. 28) is a form of grommet made

on a rope.

KNOUT (Fr. knout, from Russ. knutu, scourge, from Icel. knutr, AS. cnotta, Eng. knot). A scourge composed of many thongs of skin, plaited, and interwoven with wire, which was formerly the customary instrument of punish ment in Russia for all classes and degrees of criminals. The offender was tied to two stakes, stripped, and given on the back the specified number of lashes; 100 or 120 were equivalent to a sentence of death, but in many cases the victim died under the operation long before this number was completed. The nobility were legally exempt from the knout, but this privilege was not always respected. The knout was abolished by the Emperor Nicholas, who substituted the pleti, a kind of lash.

KNOWLEDGE (from ME. knowan, AS. onāwan, Icel. knā, OHG. cnāan; connected with OChurch Slav, znati, Lat. noscere, Gk. yiyvwoKELY, gignōskein, Skt. jñā, to know + ME. leche, from Icel. leikr, -leiki, an abstract suffix), THEORY OF, or EPISTEMOLOGY. The science which is concerned with questions about the existence, the validity, and the extent of knowledge. Because of its fundamental character, dealing as it does with a fact that every other science unquestioningly takes for granted, it is considered a philosophical discipline.

In one sense it can be said that any inquiry into knowledge is a circular procedure. In other words, there must be knowledge to begin with, before inquiry of any sort can be entered upon. In this respect, however, epistemology is not so different from any other science, for every science

starts with actually given facts and with some degree of actual knowledge of these facts. The facts that the epistemologist takes as given are the fact of knowledge and the fact of knowing something about this knowledge. Just at this point the skeptic puts an objection. He either says that there is no knowledge, or else that if there is we cannot know of it, and that therefore the epistemologist begs the whole question. This objection is not so serious as at first blush it seems to be. Indeed, it has done more than anything else to put epistemology on a scientific basis. For when the objection is scrutinized it will be seen to mean, not that there is no fact in experience answering to the name of knowledge, but that the fact of knowledge is not what it is usually taken to be. In other words, the skeptic-if he knows what he is about— does not deny the existence of knowledge as a fact of experience; but he doubts certain theories of knowledge-e.g. among others the theory that there are objects, styled real, which are in some way represented or copied by other objects styled ideas. He doubts these theories because he knows, or thinks he knows, that they give an account of knowledge which is incompatible with the facts of the case. That is, the skeptic has a theory of his own about knowledge; he is an epistemologist, and as such enters upon the arena of scientific discussion.

This analysis of the attitude of the skeptic toward knowledge is so important that it must be dwelt upon at greater length. No man is born a skeptic. No young child is a skeptic. If he becomes cne later, the experiences that have brought about the revolution in his view of the world should help us to a clear insight into the real meaning of this new view. In other words, unless the skeptic is insane, he has and gives reasons for his new attitude. He adduces proofs, taken from his own experience, and presumably verified in the experience of others, to establish either the certainty or the probability, or at least the irrefutable possibility, of his ignorance. The stock arguments of skepties are gathered up into the famous tropes of Enesidemus (q.v.); and they are further condensed in the five tropes of Agrippa, a skeptic of the second century of our era. It is worth our while to examine these arguments, as they help us to understand the methods, the assumptions, and therefore the real significance of skepticism in general. The tropes of Agrippa are as follows: (1) The same object gives rise to different impressions. (2) All knowledge presupposes an infinite series of premises, since any disputed proposition must be proved by some other, this latter by still a third, and so ad infinitum. (3) All knowledge is relative, since every object presents an appearance that differs according to the differences in the constitutions of the percipients and according to the relations in which the object stands to other objects. (4) All axioms are arbitrary, since dogmatists, to escape the regressus ad infinitum, start their argument from some premise which they assume without justification. (5) There is a circle in all reasoning, since the conclusion rests upon the premises, and, contrariwise, the premises rest upon the conclusion.

A survey of these proofs shows that in every one some fact is categorically asserted. No one can venture to say, for instance, that the same object gives rise to different impressions, unless