On the other hand, Saffer (1991) noted that previous studies of the relationship of alcohol advertising and consumption may not have had sufficient variation in advertising to show differences in total consumption. He investigated the effects of alcohol advertising bans on three measures of alcohol abuse in which pooled time series data from 17 countries were analyzed for the period from 1970 to 1983. Underlying this research was the idea that decisions regarding total consumption are based on perceptions of "traditionally acceptable” patterns of consumption, which are influenced by exposure to alcohol advertising over long periods of time. Saffer reported that reductions in two of the three variables (total alcohol consumption and motor vehicle fatalities) were related to advertising bans. Specifically, Saffer found that nations banning the advertising of spirits, compared to nations with no bans, had approximately 16 percent lower alcohol consumption; countries banning beer and wine ads had 11 percent lower alcohol consumption than those prohibiting only the advertising of spirits. The reductions in motor vehicle fatality rates were 10 percent and 23 percent, respectively. This research is important not only because it demonstrates an effect of alcohol advertising on measures of alcohol abuse, but also because it offers a theory as to how advertising may influence the development of drinking norms and standards. Issues related to the normative environment are discussed in greater detail in chapter 12 of this volume. A greater understanding is needed of the impact of both media portrayals of drinking and laws and regulations governing alcohol use on the expression, maintenance, and shaping of social consensus about alcohol use. Limited information is currently available about the effects of media presentations of alcohol on drinking behavior, but research has been conducted on the content of fictional media portrayals of alcohol. Smith et al. (1988) performed a content analysis of a systematic sample of 50 programs broadcast on British television. Their results indicated more portrayals of alcohol consumption than consumption of soft drinks and other nonalcoholic beverages, but few refer ences to the potential hazards connected with alcohol consumption. Wallach et al. (1990) analyzed televised portrayals of alcohol in primetime fictional programming in the United States and found that nearly two-thirds of the episodes made reference to alcohol. Half of the episodes portrayed actual consumption, with an average of over eight drinking acts per hour. Drinking characters tended to be financially well-off with secure professional or managerial positions. Further, alcohol use was portrayed in a positive light with no emphasis on its problematic aspects; clear depiction of alcohol problems occurred in only 10 percent of the episodes. This research is important because of its implications concerning the development of norms and expectations about alcohol. A greater understanding is needed of the impact of both media portrayals of drinking and laws and regulations governing alcohol use on the expression, maintenance, and shaping of social consensus about alcohol use. Blane (1988) assessed problems in recent research and gaps in knowledge and suggested the need for studies that focus on the impact of the media compared with that of families and peers, longitudinal studies evaluating delayed effects, studies of media and advertising expenditures specific to particular target audiences, and experimental studies that can control for other explanatory factors, such as expectancies and intentions. Summary Alcohol use and abuse are related to many psychological, social, and developmental phenomena. Thus, research in this area has recently focused on multivariate interactive models. Selected examples of promising results have been described in this review, and theoretical integrations of the psychosocial and developmental research literature suggest directions for future research. Research on the motivation to drink alcohol, particularly in relation to alcohol's effect on negative emotional states, suggests that alcohol may be differentially reinforcing for certain individuals. These individual differences may be related to genetic risk; in addition, persons having limited coping skills and those holding expectations about alcohol's ability to control stress may also be at increased risk. Chronic environmental stresses, such as negative life events and occupational stressors, may therefore have more impact on some people than on others. Research evidence has suggested a possible mechanism for alcohol's stress-reducing and other perceived effects through the concept of alcohol myopia. According to this promising theory, alcohol's effect on stress is mediated by cognitive factors (alcohol's impact on information processing ability) combined with environmental factors (the presence or absence of distractors). Through this mechanism, alcohol is also thought to block inhibitions and reduce internal conflicts about behavior, thus making social behavior more extreme. A relatively new area of study that also shows considerable promise is expectancies, beliefs and expectations about the effects of alcohol. There is evidence that expectancies about alcohol are formed at an early age, before the actual consumption of alcohol, and that they can be influenced by the use of alcohol in the family. There is also evidence that those who drink heavily tend to expect alcohol's effects to be positive; for example, that alcohol will improve functioning, reduce tension, and enhance social pleasure. A complex association between family history and expectancy has been suggested in which the relationship is mediated by personality factors. Expectancies, particularly beliefs about the positive effects of alcohol, have also been found to predict drinking behavior. Thus, expectancies have been found to be related to current alcohol use patterns as well as to drinking onset and patterns of problematic use. Recent conceptual discussions have emphasized the need to study the memory processes by which information about alcohol's effects is stored, represented, and retrieved as a means of understanding how expectancies guide decisionmaking. Personality factors have also been studied in relation to drinking. Problem-prone behavior in adolescence has been described as part of a personality style that is undercontrolled, impulsive, and sensation-seeking. The concept of a personality characterized by behavioral undercontrol has been found to affect alcohol involvement both directly and indirectly. From a developmental perspective, variants of the behavioral undercontrol construct in adolescence have been consistently related to alcohol problems. Interpersonal influence processes, such as the behavior of family and peers, are also central factors in alcohol use. Like other social behaviors, alcohol use and associated problems are related to peer usage (particularly among teens), parental alcohol use, and parenting practices. The fam ily has also been found to be a potent agent of social control of drinking. Recent research directed at the role of the family has suggested that alcoholism in the family is less likely to be passed to the next generation if it does not cause disruption of "family rituals." Although peer influences greatly exceed parental influence in adolescent alcohol use, research has identified a norm-setting role of the parent relative to teens' attitudes about the harmfulness of drinking. Black and white adolescents have been found to differ in the importance of parental versus peer disapproval of drinking, with black teens being influenced by parents and white teens by friends. Racial/ethnic differences were also found in terms of specific family factors involved in adolescent drinking. Research has suggested that peer influences may mediate the effect of distress on alcohol and other drug use in adolescence and that the closeness of the peer relationship may be an important factor in peer influence on drinking. Social influence in the form of media portrayals of drinking and alcohol advertising also have been investigated, although limited information is currently available. Research on televised portrayals of drinking found that an average of eight drinking acts per hour were depicted on primetime fictional broadcasts, that drinking characters tended to be high status individuals, and that alcohol use was typically portrayed as problemfree. Research also found that restrictions on alcohol advertising were associated with reductions in two measures of alcohol abuse. Psychological and social phenomena do not exist in isolation and their impact varies over time and from individual to individual. Initial use of alcohol may be related to young people's attempts to establish their own individuality and adopt adult behaviors. More abusive patterns of drinking in adolescence have been associated with difficulties in this and other life areas. This pattern of adolescent problem behavior may be related to differences in personality and temperament. Continuity of risk factors over time may increase the likelihood of problems, while discontinuity may decrease risk. Greater understanding of the interrelationships of developmental, psychological, and social factors is needed to inform prevention and early intervention efforts. Viewing alcohol problems as an interaction of individual differences in temperament, personality, alcohol reinforcement, management of stress, family interaction, and peer relationships creates a complex etiological model. Nevertheless, such a model likely reflects the true complexity of human behavior. A multivariate approach also allows considerable promise to minimize risk through changes in environmental factors, relationships, and belief systems. References Adlaf, E.M., and Kohn, P.M. Alcohol advertising, consumption, and abuse: A covariancestructural modelling look at Strickland's data. 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