CHAPTER 2: INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF STATE The Secretary of State has primary responsibility for coordination and oversight of major science and technology agreements between the U.S. and foreign governments. This responsibility is exercised in coordination with other U.S. government departments and agencies. To implement its responsibilities, the State Department had nearly 200 personnel employed in the U.S. and abroad during FY 1988. These individuals worked to achieve American science and technology goals, economic growth, and foreign policy objectives. Successes included the conclusion of an agreement between the United States, Japan, Canada and nine western European nations concerning long-term cooperation in the development, operation and utilization of the manned space station. The largest international cooperative science and technology projection in history, the space station will strengthen relations with our allies and may establish a powerful model for cooperation in other space projects. The Department of State also has responsibility for leading the negotiations of government-to-government science and technology agreements. In FY 1988, this included the U.S.-Japan S&T agreement that was signed by President Reagan and Prime Minister Takeshita at the Toronto Summit in June 1988. The Department of State also led the negotiations on the U.S.-USSR Agreement on Basic Scientific Research in FY 1988. The Department of State continued to play a leading role in environmental issues. Assistant Secretary of the Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES) Dr. Frederick M. Bernthal led the U.S. delegations to the London Dumping Convention and the first meeting of the Intergovernmental Panel on climate change. The State Department was active in concluding the NOx Protocol which is appended to the long-range transboundary air pollution agreement. The protocol is the means by which Canada and other members of the U.N. Economic Commission for Europe agreed to control emissions of nitrogen oxides. The U.S. role also was seen in negotiations under the OECD and the U.N. Environment Program on transboundary movements of hazardous wastes. A departmental review of S&T officer functions revealed four major areas of responsibility: (1) advising on policy issues; (2) representing U.S. government, including domestic agency interests; (3) negotiating with host governments; and (4) reporting on S&T developments. The multi-faceted nature of S&T work requires capable officers with diversified skills including an ability to place science and technology appropriately in the overall context of bilateral relations. As of September 30, 1988, 37 full-time S&T officers were assigned to embassies and missions abroad. Seventeen held scientific or engineering degrees of whom ten had advanced degrees. A number of these were recruited from other agencies, industry or academia. Training for S&T officers during the fiscal year included a formal course at the Foreign Service Institute (FSI), carefully organized programs for officers on consultations, and an S&T officers conference. The two-week-long FSI course, developed with the assistance of the National Science Foundation, provided 25 State Department and domestic agency personnel with a detailed overview of the wide range of issues and interests at the intersection of science, technology and foreign policy as viewed by representatives of industry, academia, and the executive and legislative branches of government. An intensive three-day conference in September 1988 provided 26 senior S&T officers with background information and guidance on a broad range of subjects including S&T issues and priorities, technology transfer, intellectual property rights and competitiveness, S&T reporting requirements, and environmental and energy issues. The importance of the conference, and of international science and technology, was emphasized by the level of speakers. These included the Deputy Secretary of State, the President's Science Advisor, and the Director of the National Science Foundation. The conference ended by meeting with the Chairman and members of the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology. Assistant Secretary Bernthal gave a report on the steps the Department of State is taking to implement E.O. 12591, "Facilitating Access to Science and Technology," issued April 10, 1987 and to assure that access to S&T abroad is equitable and reciprocal. One element in responding to E.O. 12591 was the initiation of the STRIDE (S&T Reporting and Information Dissemination Enhancement) project. The Department of State, in cooperation with the National Science Foundation and the National Technical Information Service, conducted a pilot study during FY 1988 to gather and disseminate to U.S. industry and academia information on foreign science and technology. Selected embassies were asked to submit reports on superconductivity, advanced ceramics, advanced microelectronics, and other specifically appropriate subjects. These STRIDE reports then were sent to selected U.S. scientists, commercial S&T information managers, and industrial marketing experts. OES now has continuing responsibility for gathering appropriate unclassified foreign S&T information from State Department sources, and providing it electronically to NSF and the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) for further dissemination. NTIS prepares abstracts of the STRIDE reports and makes the material commercially available through its established mechanisms to its customers. Dr. During FY 1988, the OES Bureau underwent several important changes. First, Dr. Bernthal was sworn in as Assistant Secretary on May 24, 1988, succeeding John D. Negroponte. Bernthal has consolidated several offices within the Bureau in response to budgetary reductions at the Department of State. A current major objective of the Bureau is to modernize its electronic office equipment and telecommunications capabilities. The goals and activities of the OES Advisory Committee, a panel of nationally and internationally recognized scientists, have been re-examined and the committee is expected to assume a more active role in advising OES of current scientific and technological issues. U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Previous editions of the Title V report have included discussion of the 1981 restructuring of the Agency for International Development (USAID) in order to strengthen its scientific and technical components. These policy and programmatic enhancements resulted in significant new initiatives and achievements. Agriculture Agricultural research is critical for successful village-level agriculture development to occur. Progress in development and extension begins with research, which in some cases must be undertaken several years before on-farm use is safe and possible (e.g., germplasm, new breeding varieties and ecologically-sound pesticides). Thus, agricultural development milestones must be related to early research on new farm practices and technologies which can generate income, add to food supplies, and conserve natural resources in the process. Water Management. USAID-funded irrigation projects have resulted in more reliable irrigation systems operation and management. Specific benefits realized are: (1) more acres can now be irrigated and more farmers benefit from the same amount of available water; (2) more uniform production with less year-to-year fluctuation; (3) reduced soil salinity and water logging, benefitting both immediate production and the number of families served, with better long-term sustainability; and (4) increased employment income and a more satisfactory economic return on public investments in irrigation. Small Ruminant CRSP. Dual-purpose goats (DPG), used for meat and milk, have been developed by the Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support System (CRSP) and continue to be in great demand by Kenyan farmers because of the high milking capability of these goats. Average daily milk off-take per DPG doe was 1.5 liters compared to off-take of indigenous breeds of only 0.5 liters. Basic research in genetics of sheep and goats resulted in marked increases in carcass meat and wool production. Indonesian sheep and goat weight gains were increased by 120 percent and efficiency by more than 80 percent, as a result of improved green legume foliage practices. Successful diagnosis of sheep pulmonary adenomatosis in Peru is considered a technological breakthrough. Improved Nitrogen Fixing Organisms. Worldwide awareness, and more general acceptance, of biological nitrogen produced by legumes in association with the bacteria rhizobia has resulted, in part, from the work of USAID's projects. Biological nitrogen also has been shown to increase the efficiency of protein production by legume crops and to provide an inexpensive source of nitrogen as an alternative to commercial inorganic nitrogen fertilizers. Yields of common beans were doubled in experiments conducted in a few Central American countries when new bean varieties were combined with improved rhizobia. This has demonstrated the development and use of small scale, cost effective units to produce rhizobia in Asia and Africa. When legumes are inoculated with suitable rhizobia, it not only benefits the legume crops but also the future crops grown on the acreage. The Biological Nitrogen Fixation. University of Wisconsin researchers, working under the Bean/Cowpea CRSP, have developed dry bean lines that fix 80 kilograms nitrogen per hectare. combination of superior cultivars and improved strains of rhizobia increases yields 50 to 70 percent. Using these improved strains makes it possible for farmers to maximize nitrogen supply at very little expense. Researchers have conducted regional and local trials on elite bean lines, testing for superior fixation potential and other desirable traits. Several black bean breeding lines have performed well and soon will be released. Seeds with enhanced capability for nitrogen fixation are being made available as new cultivars for planting, or for use in breeding programs in the U.S., at International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCS) and in other national programs. Tropical Soils. Technology to manage highly-weathered, infertile tropical soils has been developed and has contributed to meeting worldwide hunger and food needs. For example, sorghum yields have been increased from 56 to 120 percent in three agroclimatic regions of Niger with sandy soils. Texas A&M University investigators developed a contour strip rainfall harvesting (CSRH) technique to induce a deeper rooting system and dramatically increase dry matter production. In addition, cropping cycles, after slash and burn farming, have been increased from two or three crops to five or six by systematic return of residues, selection of acid tolerant varieties and crop rotation. This increase in number of cropping cycles and intensified management of appropriate lands saves approximately seven to ten acres of primary forest for every acre so treated. Wheat Breeding Program. Oregon State University has developed numerous wheat lines with superior qualities by crossing spring wheat with winter wheat. When compared to local check cultivars in 39 countries, selections from the winter/spring program consistently have higher yields. Several lines which originated from the project are in the final stages of testing for release in Oregon, and two varieties selected from project material were released to Tunisia during 1988. researcher who developed these new wheat varieties received an award from the USDA for his outstanding work. The Soybean Utilization. Soybean utilization increasingly is providing income for the rural poor. By learning how to process soybeans, less developed country (LDC) producers can make and sell a nutritious product made with low quality, locally produced commodities and with nominal input from the outside. For example, soybean food production suited to local Sri Lankan tastes, including flour, milk and weaning food, has been assisted by the International Soybean Program (INSOY) based at the University of Illinois. Improved harvesting of immature pods and bean removal for canning and freezing of whole soybeans have been studied for foreign and domestic markets. Residue conversion research has been undertaken to achieve affordable, high quality animal food from extrusion cooking. A small scale extruder-expeller process has been developed with the objective of product sterilization without destruction of important nutrients such as protein. Peanut CRSP. The Peanut CRSP released peanut varieties that are high yielding, tolerant to pests and drought and suitable to fit into agriculture systems of developing countries. Plant breeding efforts of the Peanut CRSP resulted in the release of seven superior cultivars including one in the Philippines, one in Jamaica and two in Thailand. Three peanut varieties were released for commercial use by the Peanut CRSP scientists in North Carolina due to the feedback of superior germplasm to U.S. clientele and enhanced U.S. peanut breeding programs. Advanced testing of several more varieties promises similar results in Texas. International Agricultural Research Centers. USAID contributes approximately 20 percent of the core funding of a global network of multi-donor-financed international agricultural research centers. These centers are devoted to solving problems that limit the productivity of agriculture in developing countries, training developing country agriculture scientists, and transferring technologies to individual countries. Center scientists address both technical and socio-economic issues related to improved farming systems in the major tropical ecosystems found in developing countries and the specific technical needs to improve the productivity, efficiency, sustainability and stability of production for major food crops, livestock and aquatic resources. An example of success in this effort has been the identification, testing and distribution of a biologic control organism to combat the cassava mealy bug that spread into Africa devastating this basic food crop of subsistence farmers. Another research effort producing a major payoff is the identification of an African cattle strain resistant to sleeping sickness spread by the tsetse fly; this disease prevents profitable cattle raising in large parts of Africa. Energy, Forestry and Natural Resources Developing countries require increasing supplies of natural resources and energy to support expanding economies. The energy program seeks to develop new approaches to energy problems through research and adaptation. The environment and natural resources program assists in achieving broad economic development through conservation of natural resources. Energy Technology. Research and development is being sponsored for energy production from biomass resources (principally sugar and rice residues and wood wastes), which also helps to diversify rural economies. The use of clean coal technologies also is being tested and encouraged. To meet the objectives of environmental protection and indigenous resource use, USAID is promoting the transfer and development of cost-effective applications of renewable energy technologies. Specific adaptations of small hydro, geothermal, wind and photovoltaic technologies, for instance, are being funded. In addition, increased efficiency has direct benefits in both economic and environmental terms. Therefore, USAID funds programs that attempt to increase efficiency in the utility, industrial, building, transportation and residential sectors. USAID is part of a multi-institutional network which seeks to identify innovative financing resources, and provide policy guidance and technological solutions for power crises in developing countries. The network is comprised of the Inter-American Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, International Finance Corporation, United Nations, U.S. Trade and Development Program, Electric Power Research Institute, and the Southern California Edison Company. The Coastal Resources Management. The USAID Coastal Resources Management project has conducted pilot projects in three developing countries: Ecuador, Sri Lanka and Thailand. purpose of this project is to transfer U.S. experience and technology in coastal management to enhance economic development in the coastal zones of developing countries while sustaining the natural resource base. This year, the project has focused on activities that support coastal agriculture and near-shore fisheries. Areas include management of mangrove forests; design, construction and management of ponds for aquaculture; management of fishing over coral reefs; stabilization of seagrass beds; and production of marine algae. The project now is tackling controversial conflicts in resource uses, and is assisting the government of Thailand in establishing a coastal development review authority as well as a national policy for use of the coastal zone. Forestry/Fuelwood. The Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development (F/FRED) project catalogues the research results of species trials for fast-growing trees in a databank shared globally with other forestry research networks. These results allow small farmers to take advantage of genetic improvements of multipurpose tree species (MPTS) by integrating trees into farming systems throughout differing climatic and ecologic zones. Genetic improvement of MPTS is taking place through conventional tree breeding procedures and through the use of new biotechnologies such as tissue culture. F/FRED also is concentrating on alley cropping research as an appropriate and |