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which can be provided in high school courses are limited, and many of the more rapidly growing technical occupations are almost precluded. For all of these reasons there are sound arguments for delaying preparation for specific occupations until after high school.

On the other hand, about three out of five youths still receive no formal post-secondary training, and one out of four fail to complete high school. There is anxiety to assure a salable skill to the school leaver. Despite the high dropout rate for vocational students who, as previously shown, tend to be drawn from dropout prone populations, there exists an assumption that occupationally-oriented education could, at its best, possess sufficient relevance to raise the school retention rate significantly. Experimental programs have attempted simultaneous solutions to this variety of inter-related problems. They seek to acquaint students with the nature of the world of work in elementary and junior high schools, motivate them to absorb general education by molding it around a core of occupational skills with training for broad job families or clusters rather than specific occupations. Experimentation in skill upgrading and remedial education and training has been sponsored largely by federal manpower and antipoverty programs rather than vocational education, though vocational educators have been deeply involved. A few examples of experimental and innovative projects will illustrate the trends.

Understanding the World of Work

The "Technology for Children'' project, co-sponsored by the New Jersey State Department of Education and the Ford Foundation, the Nova schools in Florida and the "American Industries" project at Stout State University in Wisconsin are examples of programs which expose children early to the vocational choices they will eventually have to make. The New Jersey program consists of a systematic kindergarten through grade 12 exposure to the workings of the economy and the nature of the occupations within it. As a bonus, in addition to increasing the realism of vocational choice, it is hoped that the students will gain a general understanding of economic realities and will find all learning more relevant.

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In grades 1-6, the Nova children are introduced to a wide range of employment-related experiences through tools, mechanical devices and games. In grades 7-12, the program becomes more directive. In grades 7 and 8, the students are exposed to fundamental concepts of technology, and a variety of introductory experiences are provided to help the student become more aware of vocational alternatives and career requirements. Specialization increases in grades 9-12, but encouragement is constantly offered to remain in school as long as the student can profit from further education. All experiences and decisions are structured so as not to pose obstacles to continuation. The objective is to develop confidence, knowledge and skills within a family of occupations, enhancing the immediate employability of the student, yet holding the door open to continued education and training. Learning experiences are individualized. The teaching of concepts and reliance upon problem solving as a teaching technique are emphasized. Progress is measured by achievement of competency rather than time in any particular phase of the program.

The American Industries project begins at the eighth grade rather than in elementary school. However, its objectives are similar. From a general understanding of the major concepts of industry and technology and simple problem-solving techniques, the student is to progress to the ability to recognize and solve complex industrial problems within broad concept areas or clusters of concepts appropriate to the individual's interest and abilities.

Melding Academic and Vocational Education

The Nova schools and the American Industries project are also examples of efforts to offer a broad academic education but to give it relevance, increase motivation and provide salable skills by structuring the academic offering around a core of manual or technical occupational skills. A number of other programs share similar objectives.

The Nova pre-employment program requires every student to elect one technical science course each year. In addition he enrolls in science, social studies, English, mathematics and foreign language courses, each with units and activities

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directly related to the student's interest field. Vocationally certified teachers are teamed with other certified personnel for curriculum development and related material presentation. By teaching the concepts and processes of the work world and by using problem-solving techniques, the student is prepared for current employment yet enabled to cope with change. Despite preparation for immediate employment in a broad occupational area, students are prepared and encouraged to continue their education at college.

The American Industries project is also interdisciplinary, combining academic and vocational education. Its basic philosophy is that American industry provides a body of knowledge which can be analyzed in terms of identifiable concepts and that a structure can be developed to provide order to the body of knowledge. As the structure is formulated, it is prepared for instructional purposes and tested in cooperating schools. The courses draw heavily from the disciplines of psychology and sociology and also rely, to a great extent, upon the natural curiosity and motivation of students.

The San Mateo Unified School District, San Mateo, California, has developed a "zero-reject" concept for curriculum planning. The assumption is that with proper teaching techniques, every student can earn a high school diploma with significant standards and a broad liberal and vocational education. The schools accept the responsibility for seeing that students are employable whenever they choose to leave school, whether as a dropout from grade 10, or with a doctorate. Occupations are grouped by clusters and by levels which form ladders of progression throughout the educational experience. Academic disciplines, it is argued, should be established for the convenience of teaching and understanding rather than the standard "watertight compartments" adopted largely for convenience in administration. The intent is to state performance objectives clearly and mix discipline components to fit the student's own individualized learning strategy.

The "Partnership Vocational Education Project" at Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan, is a joint effort between the university and the secondary schools, community colleges and industry of the area. The project employs a teaching team from math, science, English and

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industrial education. The program begins at the ninth or tenth grade of the secondary school and continues through the university serving all individuals with industrial-technical aptitudes and interests. It is structured on three levels: (1) a college-bound upper ability group; (2) an intermediate level group who may choose to enter the labor force after high school or who may advance to the community college or university; and (3) a lower ability group of students who are likely to enter the labor force after or even before graduation from high school. However, no student is permanently locked into any one of the three levels, and each may shift to another level according to his interests and aptitudes. The program at each level uses the vocational interest of the student as the motivating force for a sound educational program, but the vocational interest does not result in a vocational dead end. Occupational and personal guidance is emphasized to familiarize youngsters with the industrial-technical occupations and higher educational opportunities open to them including the building of realistic aspirational levels. It is argued that the motivation, particularly of individuals from lower socioeconomic levels, is directly related to the immediacy of the reward and the relationship of the task to its achievement. Therefore, formal education is related as directly as possible to the personal goals of the individual. A problem-solving approach attempts to give meaning to formal education. The students develop capability in the identification of meaningful tasks, in the selection of appropriate knowledge and skill, and in applying them to the solution of problems.

The "Pre-engineering Technology Program," also known as the "Richmond Plan" or "Pre-Tech Program," now used widely throughout the San Francisco Bay area, was initiated by the Richmond, California High School District and Cogswell Polytechnical College. Its target population is the average, capable but under-motivated student who is achieving below his ability. The program is especially structured for an area in which the majority of students attain some education beyond high school. The immediate occupational goal is that of engineering technician. However, care is taken in curriculum planning and through cooperative relationships with the junior college system to assure that the graduates are qualified for the latter if their motivation is revived. Though broadly

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rather than narrowly prepared, the students are in high demand from employers in the area. Curriculum units are planned by a teaching team around a core technical project provided by the industrial arts instructor. Each instructor from math, science and English then structures his offering around that project stressing their inter-relatedness.

The project has proven the effectiveness of the interdisciplinary, employment-oriented approach in achieving a variety of occupational goals. Approximately 40 schools in the San Francisco Bay area have adopted the approach applying it to 12 different occupational goals. One of the more interesting and successful has been "Project-FEAST" (Food, Education and Service Technology) preparing for commercial food services. Though enrolling students of all ability levels, it has been particularly effective and appropriate for those of less than average ability. The disciplines drawn upon are home economics, science, English and mathematics. Close ties with the Hotel and Restaurant Foundation at San Francisco City College have assured both employment and further educational opportunities to the students involved.

Other innovative programs could be cited. Their conceptions of the inter-relatedness of career development and personal and social development, of academic and vocational education, of all levels of the educational process and the need for adaptability throughout a working life are hopeful signs. Their isolation from the bulk of vocational education activities are not.

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Of federal vocational education sponsored innovation, Project ABLE in Quincy, Massachusetts is one of the few which approaches, but does not achieve, the full range of innovation evident in the aforementioned projects. Even then, the Quincy project was originally supported from research rather than operating funds and was designed with the help of the American Institute for Research. The Quincy program involves the tenth grade and above including a two-year postsecondary curriculum. The program is built around 11 families of occupations encompassing 255 specific occupational

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"Quincy Builds," American Education, July-August 1967, pp.

12-13+.