tion as it slowly developed during the 19th century came under their control. The "general welfare" clause and other clauses in the Constitution have served as warrants and guides for the development of Federal educational programs. In recent years there has been increasing contention that the "general welfare" clause assigned the Federal Government not simply the right but actually the duty to promote education. This is an ethical question which, by reason of its nature, has not been and is not likely to be the subject of any judicial decision. However, interpretations of the Constitution which have been made by the Supreme Court apparently would sanction appropriation of Federal funds for any activity in education which could be shown to be for the purpose of promoting the national welfare." D. MANPOWER FOR NATIONAL DEFENSE Establishment of the Military Academy at West Point in 1802 might be considered the first Federal measure for the development of professional manpower. The Artillery Corps for Instruction, assembled at Fort Monroe, Va., in 1824, was the first of the special service schools later organized by all the major services of the Army for the training of officers. The Naval Academy was established at Annapolis in 1845; the Air Force Academy in 1954. These establishments provide free higher education, plus other benefits for selected individuals, and constitute precedents for some current proposals aimed at professional manpower development. The Morrill Act of 1862 provided specifically that military training would be given at the land-grant colleges founded pursuant to that act. Organization of the Reserve Officers Training Corps in 1916, the Student Army Training Corps in 1918, the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps in 1925, and Air Force Reserve Officers Training Corps in 1946 marked important phases in cooperative educational undertakings by the Federal Government and civil institutions of higher education. The undertakings have required direct contracts with public and private colleges and universities. In the opinion of some persons the ROTC, AFROTC, and NROTC, and particularly the "Regular" NROTC established after World War II may be considered precedents for the creation of other Federal scholarship programs. The existing programs give aid to individuals for collegiate training particularly for military service. The Federal Departments provide instructors for the military courses, textbooks, and military equipment but no payments to the institutions for the use of facilities and other services in connection with the programs. The ROTC programs have a distinct impact upon both the facilities and the finances of the colleges and universities. They also affect the educational programs which the colleges provide for students. The military instruction is broader than formerly and now includes much material of a nonmilitary nature." Hamilton v. Regents (1934), 297 U. S. 245: Wickard v. Filburn (1942), 317 U. S. 111; Oklahoma v. U. S. Civil Service Commission (1947), 330 U. S. 127. 8 Blauch, Lloyd E. Higher Education and the Federal Government. American Council on Education, October 1956. Processed. 9 pp. Address before the During World War II educational activities of all sorts and at all levels within the Armed Forces were vastly extended. At one time the Office of War Information announced that the United States Army and Navy were operating "the largest adult school system in the world." This system largely utilized the colleges and universities of the Nation. Also during the Second World War the Congress made available to the States funds for a number of activities in education for national defense. The United States Office of Education administered several emergency programs and aids to education. These included (1) the "below college grade" program of vocational training for war production workers, and (2) the college level program of engineering, science, and management war training. Total Federal expenditures for these and other wartime training programs for civilians amounted to over $360 million.* The United States Office of Education also administered a program of loans for students for training in technical and professional fields. This program is of particular interest today as a precedent for some bills pending in Congress. From this whole account it may be seen that the Federal Government has developed a policy of large-scale provision for the training of manpower for national defense. Implementation of this policy involves direct utilization of a number of Federal institutions of higher education and also contractual utilization of the facilities and services of other public and private colleges and universities. Provisions made by the Department of Defense for the education of Federal military and civilian personnel today include instruction in practically all subject fields at all educational levels. E. LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT With the passage of the Morrill Act of 1862 the Congress initiated a policy of aid to the States for the development of professional manpower in certain specialized fields. This act granted to each State Federal lands, or script to States in which there was not sufficient Federal land to make up their allotments. The proceeds of the sales of these grants were to provide for the endowment and support of at least one college in each State where the leading object would be— to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe. Congress later enacted laws providing for continuing annual priations to these institutions. appro The Second Morrill Act (1890) initiated Federal money grants. for instructional purposes in higher education, specifying the use of the funds for certain subjects. This act set a pattern for other Federal subvention programs in education. In 1914, through the Smith-Lever Act, Congress inaugurated a program of Federal-State cooperation in extension work in agriculture and home economics. This act and later acts providing for reforestation activities involve the services of land-grant colleges. Blauch, Lloyd E. Federal Relations to Education. Encyclopedia of Educational Research, 1952, p. 440. The Federal land-grant legislation represents development of a Federal policy of not only promoting higher education of the kind specified but also stimulating State support for this kind of education and concomitantly encouraging the training of professional manpower in general. The land-grant institutions have been called "democracy's colleges" because of the tremendous impetus they gave to the expansion of higher education in this country. Giving support to instruction principally in agriculture, the mechanic arts, and military tactics, the grants have greatly influenced the general acceptance of natural science into the college curriculum.5 They may be considered precedent for Federal promotion of the application of science to agriculture and industry. F. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BELOW COLLEGE GRADE Through the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 the Congress established a policy of Federal aid to the States in the support of vocational education below college grade. The long-range effects of this program upon technical and professional manpower development in the affected fields have been beyond measure. The Smith-Hughes Act provides a permanent annual appropriation of $7,138,000. It contains stipulations as to the use of the funds. The act also provides aid for the training of teachers of vocational subjects. To this extent it constitutes a precedent for pending proposals for Federal subsidy of teacher training on a large scale. Subsequent legislation culminating in the George-Barden Act of 1946 has authorized additional Federal appropriations and extended the scope of the Federal-State program of vocational education. Beginning in 1940 and extending to the end of World War II, the Congress appropriated funds to the States for the training of defense and war production workers. The first appropriation of $15 million was increased annually until the amount exceeded $100 million. Under this program over 11 million people received training in occupations essential to the war effort. The George-Barden Act authorized an appropriation of $29 million annually as the Federal share of financing the Federal-State program of vocational education. However, partly because large sums were made available to vocational education through the veterans' educational program initiated in 1946, Congress did not vote the full authorization under the George-Barden Act until 1956. From 1950 to 1954, serious but unsuccessful efforts were made to reduce or eliminate the Federal appropriations for the program. However, its advocates rallied to its defense, and Congress reacted by voting an extra $5 million for 1955 and an additional $5 million increase for 1957. The 84th Congress also enacted two bills which extended the scope of the program to include practical-nurse training and training for the fishing industry, and authorized appropriations for these purposes. For 50 years some congressional leaders have contended that, since the efficiency of each individual worker adds up to the strength of Miller, Helen A. II. Higher Education. Intergovernmental Relations in Administration of Education. the Nation, the Federal Government has a responsibility in the financing of vocational education. Each fight to maintain or increase Federal appropriations for the program appears to have resulted in strengthening it." Long-range Federal promotion of technical and professional manpower development through grants to the States for Vocational education appears to be a firmly established policy. G. DEPRESSION-PERIOD PROGRAMS During the depression of the 1930's certain Federal relief agencies engaged in educational activities while others provided grants and loans in aid of education. Through the Work Projects Administration and the Public Works Administration the Federal Government enabled educational institutions to renovate and construct facilities. Federal grants-in-aid to education and loans for the construction of educational buildings during this period amounted to many hundreds of millions of dollars. The programs of the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Youth Administration consisted largely of education and student assistance. In 1939, President Roosevelt said that the major purpose of the CCC was "to promote the welfare and further the training of the individuals" in the corps. In the same year he also said that the main purpose of the NYA was "to extend the educational opportunities of the youth of the country." Instruction in the CCC was generally below the collegiate level; however, many enrollees secured degrees by attending regular day or evening classes at colleges or universities near the camps. The National Youth Administration also carried out activities of particular interest in the present study. While providing work relief, vocational guidance, and employment for persons between the ages of 16 and 25 years, the NYA operated an extensive student-aid program in secondary schools, colleges, and universities. Locally, school and college officials administered the program. These were responsible for assigning students suitable work and supervising the work done. Regional representatives of the NYA served in a liaison capacity between the State and National offices. In case of another nationwide economic depression, these programs would stand as precedents for Federal action for the maintenance of training activities in all fields. Some persons consider that these programs constitute precedents for Federal action in any emergency period and regard the present as such an emergency. H. MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT THROUGH RESEARCH The Federal need for assistance and guidance in scientific study was formally recognized by the Congress through incorporation of the National Academy of Sciences. As a measure of national preparedness, the Academy organized the National Research Council in 1916. Federal promotion of agricultural research began with passage of the Hatch Act of 1887 providing for an annual appropriation of $15,000 to each State or Territory for an agricultural experiment station under land-grant-college supervision. Mobley, M. D., History of Federal Funds for Vocational Education. American Vocational Journal, December 1956, p. 98. During World War I the Government began entering into contractual arrangements with colleges and universities for the performance of research activities in connection with national defense. Some arrangements of this kind were continued after the war. The of such research and the number of fields of investigation were greatly increased during World War II. Scope In the fiscal year 1957, the research programs of the Federal Government will involve expenditure of over $213 billion. A considerable percentage of this amount is going to colleges and universities through grants and contracts. Research grants and contract payments from the Public Health Service, the Department of Defense, and the Atomic Energy Commission to colleges, universities, hospitals, some private laboratories and research centers managed by universities will amount to over $300 million this year. The Federal Government may be said to have developed a policy of broad utilization of the facilities and personnel of colleges and universities for research purposes. This policy has made a large impact upon the higher education of numerous individuals. In 1952, the American Council on Education reported from a study of 32 colleges and universities that 14,000 people on their staffs were employed full time and part time on Government research. While the affected institutions generally have been strengthened by the Federal contracts, in some cases the Federal payments have not met the full cost of the research. There have been complaints that the grants and contracts have not been fairly distributed geographically. There has also been dissatisfaction over the emphasis upon the natural sciences with little attention to the social sciences and humanities, and concern over the stress of applied and developmental rather than basic research." Altogether, the effects of the Federal research program upon technical and professional manpower development, though indirect, have been far reaching. I. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION (DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE) Consideration of the development of Federal policies affecting promotion of technical and professional manpower development must take into account the establishment of the United States Office of Education in 1867 and subsequent activities of that Office. It was established for the basic purpose of Collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and Territories, and of diffusing such information respecting the organization and management of schools and school systems, and methods of teaching, as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country. The collection and dissemination of information has remained a fundamental activity of the Office for the promotion of education at all levels. The Congress has at various times vested in the Office the Blauch, Lloyd E. Op. cit., p. 3. 91747-57 |