Cologne was occupied by the British, that at Coblenz by the Americans and that at Mayence by the French (see supra, p. 36).

III. THE PEACE CONFERENCE

The Peace Conference began its sessions in Paris on January 18 and at the end of July was still in the midst of its labors. It is universally admitted to be the greatest of international congresses not only because it drafted the treaty that closed the world's most disastrous war but also because of the attempts it made to set up a new international order. The formal opening of the conference had been preceded by daily meetings of the Interallied Supreme War Council, which had directed the efforts of the Allies in the victorious prosecution of the war, and by informal conferences between the President and Secretary of State of the United States, the Prime Ministers and Foreign Ministers of Great Britain, France and Italy and the Japanese ambassadors in Paris and London. At these meetings the preliminary organization of the conference was agreed upon. The first session of the conference was opened by President Poincaré; at the conclusion of his address M. Clemenceau, French Premier, was unanimously chosen permanent chairman. The regulations adopted relative to membership provided that the belligerent powers with general interests - the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy and Japan-should take part in all meetings and commissions; that the belligerent powers with particular interests-Belgium, Brazil, the British Dominions, India, China, Cuba, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Hedjaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Serbia, Siam and the Czechoslovak Republic - should take part in sittings devoted to questions concerning them; and that the neutral powers and states in process of formation should be heard either orally or in writing when summoned by the powers with general interests at sittings devoted especially to the examination of questions directly concerning them.-The representation of the several powers was finally fixed as follows: United States, British Empire, France, Italy and Japan, five members; Belgium, Brazil and Serbia, three members; China, Greece, Hedjaz, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, the Czechoslovak Republic, Australia, Canada, South Africa, and India, two members; Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay and New Zealand, one member.-The secretariat was appointed from outside the plenipotentiaries and consisted of one representative of each of the five major powers. The important decisions of the conference were made by a Supreme Council composed of the ranking delegates of the five chief powers. The conference in plenary session acted in the capacity of a formal ratifying body. - The first meetings of the Supreme Council held on January 20-22 were devoted

to a consideration of the Russian situation and resulted in the abortive conferences at Princes' Island (see infra, p. 68). The second plenary session, held on January 25, was marked by the unanimous adoption of a resolution for the creation of a League of Nations. A committee was appointed to draft a constitution for the League, consisting of two representatives of each of the five great powers, and five appointed by the other powers. The ten delegates representing the former were: United States, President Wilson and Colonel House; British Empire, Lord Robert Cecil and Lieut. Gen. J. C. Smuts; France, M. Bourgeois and M. Larnaude; Italy, Signor Orlando and Senator Scialoja; Japan, Viscount Chinda and M. Ochiai. The session adjourned after having passed resolutions for the creation of committees on responsibility for the war, reparation, international labor legislation and regulation of ports, waterways and railways. These committees were constituted in a manner similar to that on the League of Nations. During the next weeks these several committees and the Supreme Council heard the parties interested in the particular matters subject to their jurisdiction. In the consideration of all questions the several delegations availed themselves of the numerous body of experts which the major powers had brought to the conference. Among the questions to which the Supreme Council devoted itself were: the disposition of German colonies, the differences between China and Japan over Kiao-Chau and the Balkan boundary controversiesThe Committee on the League of Nations held daily sessions beginning February 4. Reports indicate that the chief difficulty arose over the question as to the power of the proposed League to enforce its decrees, the French delegation supporting the proposal that it have power to enforce them by arms and the American and British delegations favoring a more limited form of authority. On February 13 a compromise resulted in the first draft of the constitution of the League, unanimously reported to the conference by President Wilson on February 14 just before his return to the United States. On February 15 a Supreme Economic Council, an Economic Drafting Commission and a Financial Drafting Commission were created, the first charged with the questions of the distribution of shipping, the blockade, the distribution of raw materials and urgent financial problems, the second with the removal of economic barriers and the establishment of equality of trade conditions among the Allies, and the third with the financial resources of the enemy countries. On these several commissions were some of the ablest men in the financial and business circles of America and Europe.-On March 18, after President Wilson's return to Paris, the Committee on the League of Nations resumed its daily sessions, and two days later the delegates of neutral nations were given an opportunity to express their views on the draft of the Covenant.-In order that more rapid progress

might be made toward solving the many problems confronting the Conference the consideration of the chief problems in controversy passed on March 24 from the Supreme Council to a Council of Four composed of President Wilson and Premiers Lloyd George, Clemenceau and Orlando.-On April 10 President Wilson secured the adoption by the Committee on the League of Nations of a provision stipulating that the Covenant should not affect existing understandings for maintaining peace, such as the Monroe Doctrine, thus seeking to remove one of the strongest objections that had been directed against the Covenant in America.-What was probably the most acute crisis of the conference was precipitated by President Wilson's announcement on April 23 of his opposition to Italy's claims to Fiume. The Italian delegates returned to Rome, where they received an enthusiastic vote of confidence, but returned to Paris on May 6. In conferences held later, Italy made material concessions. During the weeks immediately preceding the presentation of the Treaty of Peace to the German delegates on May 7, the most significant incidents were the reports of the several committees, the granting to Poland of a "corridor" across East Prussia to the Baltic with Danzig as a free city under the League of Nations, the presentation of the revised Covenant of the League, the preliminary organization of the League of Nations with Sir Eric Drummond as Secretary-General, the disposition of the Saar coal fields, the transfer of German concessions at Kiau-Chau to Japan, the disposition of the former German colonies under the mandatory clause of the Covenant and the reception of the German peace delegation.-The official summary of the Treaty of Peace as presented to Germany follows. The text is that printed in the London Times, weekly edition, of May 16, 1919.

PREAMBLE.

The Preamble, which recites shortly the origin of the War and the application of the Germans for an Armistice, enumerates the High Contracting Parties, represented by the five Great Powers-the United States of America, the British Empire, France, Italy, and Japan, together with Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, the Hedjaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Serbia, Siam, Czecho-Slovakia, and Uruguay, on the one hand, and Germany on the other. The Plenipotentiaries representing these Powers are enumerated "who, having communicated their full powers found in good and due form, have agreed as follows: From the coming into force of the present Treaty, the state of War will terminate. From that moment, and subject to the provisions of this Treaty, official relations with Germany and with each of the German States will be resumed by the Allied and Associated Powers."

SECTION I.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

The full text was published after the Plenary Sitting, April 28. Membership.-The Members of the League will be the signatories of the Covenant and other States invited to accede, who must lodge a declaration of accession without reservation within two months. Any State, Dominion, or Colony may be admitted provided its admission is agreed by two-thirds of the Assembly. A State may withdraw upon giving two years' notice, if it has fulfilled all its international obligations.

Secretariat.-A permanent Secretariat will be established at the seat of the League, which will be at Geneva.

Assembly. The Assembly will consist of representatives of the Members of the League, and will meet at stated intervals. Voting will be by States. Each Member will have one vote and not more than three representatives.

Council. The Council will consist of representatives of the Five Great Allied Powers, together with representatives of four other Members selected by the Assembly from time to time; it may co-opt additional States and will meet at least once a year. Members not represented will be invited to send a representative when questions affecting their interests are discussed. Voting will be by States. Each State will have one vote and not more than one representative. Decisions taken by the Assembly and Council must be unanimous except in regard to procedure, and in certain cases specified in the Covenant and in the Treaty, where decisions will be by a majority.

Armaments.-The Council will formulate plans for a reduction of armaments for consideration and adoption. These plans will be revised every 10 years. Once they are adopted, no Member must exceed the armaments fixed without the concurrence of the Council. All Members will exchange full information as to armaments and programmes, and a permanent Commission will advise the Council on military and naval questions.

Prevention of War. — Upon any war, or threat of war, the Council will meet to consider what common action shall be taken. Members are pledged to submit matters of dispute to arbitration or inquiry, and not to resort to war until three months after the award. Members agree to carry out an arbitral award, and not to go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with it; if a Member fails to carry out the award, the Council will propose the necessary measures. The Council will formulate plans for the establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice to determine international disputes or to give advisory opinions. Members who do not submit their cases to arbitration must accept the jurisdiction of the Council or the Assembly. If the Council, less the parties to the dispute, is unanimously agreed upon the rights of it, the Members agree that they will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with its recommendations. In this case a recommendation by the Assembly concurred in by all its Members represented on the Council and a simple majority of the rest, less the parties to the dispute, will have the force of a unanimous recommendation by the Council. In either case, if the

necessary agreement cannot be secured the Members reserve the right to take such action as may be necessary for the maintenance of right and justice. Members resorting to war in disregard of the Covenant will immediately be debarred from all intercourse with other Members. The Council will in such cases consider what military or naval action can be taken by the League collectively for the protection of the Covenants and will afford facilities to Members co-operating in this enterprise.

Validity of Treaties. All Treaties or international engagements concluded after the institution of the League will be registered with the Secretariat and published. The Assembly may from time to time advise Members to reconsider Treaties which have become inapplicable or involve danger to peace. The Covenant abrogates all obligations between Members inconsistent with its terms, but nothing in it shall affect the validity of international engagements such as Treaties of Arbitration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine for securing the maintenance of Peace.

The Mandatory System. The tutelage of nations not yet able to stand by themselves will be entrusted to advanced nations who are best fitted to undertake it. The Covenant recognizes three different stages of development requiring different kinds of mandates:

(a) Communities like those belonging to the Turkish Empire, which can be provisionally recognized as independent, subject to advice and assistance from a mandatory in whose selection they should be allowed a voice.

(b) Communities like those of Central Africa, to be administered by the Mandatory under conditions generally approved by the members of the League, where equal opportunities for trade will be allowed to all members; certain abuses, such as trade in slaves, arms, and liquor will be prohibited, and the construction of military and naval bases and the introduction of compulsory military training will be disallowed.

(c) Other communities, such as South-West Africa and the South Pacific Islands, best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory.

In every case the Mandatory will render an annual report, and the degree of its authority will be defined.

General International Provisions. Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the League will in general endeavour, through the international organization established by the Labour Convention, to secure and maintain fair conditions of labour for men, women, and children in their own countries and other countries, and undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of territories under their control; they will entrust the League with the general supervision over the execution of agreements for the suppression of traffic in women and children, &c., and the control of the trade in arms and ammunition with countries in which control is necessary; they will make provision for freedom of communications and transit and equitable treatment for commerce of all members of the League, with special reference to the necessities of regions devastated during the war; and they will endeavour to take steps for international prevention and control of disease.