(The Reign of Emperor Nicholas I), St. Petersburg, 1901. Shoemaker, M. M., The Great Siberian Railway, New York, 1903. —Shpilevski, S. M., Drevnie goroda i drugie bulgarskotatarskie pamyatniki v Kazanskoi gubernii (Ancient Cities and Other Bulgaro-Tatar Monuments in the Government of Kazan), Kazan, 1877.-Shtchebalsky, P., La régence de la tzarewna Sophie épisode de l'histoire de Russie, 1682-1689, translation by Prince S. Galitzine, Carlsruhe, 1857; Tchtenie iz russkoi istorii (Readings from Russian History), Moscow, 1861, 6 vols. -Shumakr, A. A., Tsar-Osvoboditel (The Czar Liberator), St. Petersburg, 1901.-Skrine, F. H., The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900, Cambridge, 1903. — Soloviov, S. M., Istorya Rossii s drevneyshikh vremyon (History of Russia from the Earliest Times), Moscow, 1863-1875, 29 vols.

Sergei Mikhailovitch Soloviov was born May 17th, 1820. In 1850 he became a professor at the university of Moscow. In 1877 he came into conflict with the reactionary policy of the government toward the universities, and demanded and obtained his dismissal. He died October 16th, 1879. Besides his monumental History of Russia he was the author of numerous monographs. The Relations Between the Russian Princes of the House of Rurik was of epochmaking importance in Russian historical literature. His History of the Fall of Poland has become the standard work on the subject and was translated into German (Gotha, 1865). But all his other works are cast into the shade by his stupendous History of Russia from the Earliest Times, in which he proposed to himself a task excelling, perhaps, the power of any single human being-the presentation of the entire history of his country, based exclusively on original research. The result has, therefore, been not wholly successful, and the later volumes present the appearance of a mere aggregation of materials hastily arranged. But the material is of the finest quality and will serve as a rich quarry for all future historians. Soloviov's method of presentation is calm and dispassionate, his style tranquil and somewhat dry, but admirably clear. From Karamzin to Soloviov the gulf is wide indeed, and perhaps it will be well to present a few of the latter's ideas in order to show the indebtedness that all modern historians of Russia owe to him. Russian society, like all primitive society, was in its origin tribal and based on kinship. The introduction of Varangian rule represents the beginnings of the dissolution of that society and the introduction of political society, based on territory. But society was still in a transitional stage. The warlike followers of the princes were free to renounce their allegiance to one master and to choose another in his stead, and the principle of kinship was still dominant within the house of Rurik itself, thus counteracting the separatist tendencies of the appanages. It was the colonisation of the north and east and the removal of the center of Russian life to the Volga, that first makes possible, as well as necessary, the centralisation of power: for the colonists settle on land that belongs to the prince and in cities founded by him, while the colonists themselves come from different parts of Russia and are unconnected by the bond of kinship. In the struggle that follows between the prince and the refractory, unsubmissive elements-whether of the common people or of the noble followers-the prince is victorious and the irreconcileables flee to the forests of the north or to the steppes of the south. Thus we have the origin of the robber bands, and of the Cossacks-another name for the same thing. But the removal of the centre to the Volga also implies the estrangement of Russia from European influences, and the Tatar rule plays in this only a subordinate and external part. The grand princes of Moscow in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are thus seen to be the continuators of the policy of the grand princes of Suzdal in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, while the episode of the period of confusion represents an abortive attempt at the establishment of a milder rule by the Cossacks. Ivan III and Ivan IV, in their struggle with the foreigner, begin to appreciate the superior potency of European civilisation, and are the precursors of Peter the Great. But the new tendencies work with unceasing force during the intervening period, and those who resist the new tendencies become the nonconformists or Raskolniki (Old Ritualists). This tendency finds its parallel in Western Europe, where the task had been accomplished two centuries earlier; but not so the effort to reach the sea, which is a peculiar Russian phenomenon. Soloviov's work reaches down to 1774.

Sorel, A., Histoire du traité de Paris, Paris, 1873; La question d'Orient au XVIII. siècle, Paris, 1889. Stepniak, S. (pseudonym of Kravtchinski, S. M.), Underground Russia, New York, 1883; Russia under the Tsars. Rendered into English by W. Westall, New York, 1885; King Log and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia, London, 1896.

Stepniak, whose real name was Sergius Mikhailovitch Kravtchinski, was born in South Russia, in 1852, of a noble family. When he left school he became an officer in the artillery, but his sympathy with the peasants soon led him into the revolutionary agitation, and he became identified with the terrorist party. In 1880 he was obliged to leave Russia, and after a few years' stay in Switzerland and Italy he came to London, where he lived until 1895, when he was killed by a railway engine at a level crossing at Bedford Park, Chiswick. He was the author of numerous works on contemporary Russia, dealing chiefly with the revolutionary agitation and the condition of the peasantry.

Strahl, P. and E. Hermann, Geschichte des Russischen Staates, Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-1866, 7vols. Stevens, W. B., Through Famine-Stricken Russia, London, 1892. - Stumm, H., Russia in Central Asia, London, 1885. -Sugenheim, S., Russlands Einfluss auf und Beziehungen zu Deutschland (1689-1855), Frankfort on Main, 1856, 2 vols.; Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft, St. Petersburg, 1861.

Tatishtchev, V. N., Istorya Rossii s samykh drevnyeishikh vremyon (History of Russia from the very Earliest Times), Moscow, 1768.-Tchitchagov, L'Admiral, Mémoires de (17671849), Leipsic, 1862.-Tchitcherin, N., Oblastnyia utchrezhdenya Rossii v 17 vyeke (The Provincial Institutions of Russia in the Seventeenth Century), Moscow, 1856.Thun, A., Geschichte der revolutionären Bewegungen in Russland, Leipsic, 1883; Landwirthschaft und Gewerbe in Mittelrussland, in Schmoller's Staats-und Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen, Leipsic, 1880.- Thomson, V. L. P., The Relation Between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia, and the Origin of the Russian State, London, 1877.-Tilly, H. A., Eastern Europe and Westtern Asia, London, 1864. — Tissot, V., Russians and Germans: translated from the French by S. L. Simon, London, 1882; La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1884; Russes et Allemands, New York, 1888. Tikhomirov, L., Russia, Political and Social, translated from the French by E. Aveling, London, 1888, 2 vols. -Tolstoi, L. N., La Famine, Paris, 1893.-Tooke, W., Russia; or a Complete Historical Account of all the Nations which Comprise the Russian Empire, London, 1780-1783, 4 vols.; The Life of Catherine II, London, 1800, 3 vols.; A History of Russia from A. D. 862 to 1762, London, 1806, 2 vols. - Turgeniev, N., La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1847, 3 vols. -Tugan-Baranovski, M., Russkaya fabrika v proshlom i nastoyashtchem (The Russian Factory, Past and Present), St. Petersburg, 1898.-Tyrrell, H., History of the (Crimean) War with Russia, London, n. d. 4 vols.

Ustrialov, N., Skazanya knyazya Kurbskavo (The Accounts of Prince Kurbski), St. Petersburg, 1868.

Valikhanov, Veniukov and others, The Russians in Central Asia, translated from the Russian by J. and R. Mitchell, London, 1865. - Vambery, A., Central Asia and the AngloRussian Frontier Question, London, 1874.-Vannovski, P. S., Doklad po povodu studentcheskikh bezporyadkov 1899 g. (Report on the Students' Disorders in the Year 1899), Publication of the "Rabotchnoe znamya," 1900. — Vereshtchagin, V., “1812,” Napoleon in Russia, London, 1899. - Viniarski, L., Les finances russes (1867-1894), Geneva, 1894.-"Vladimir," (pseud.), Russia on the Pacific and the Siberian Railway, London, 1899. — Vogüé, E. de, La revolte de Pugatchef (Revue des Deux Mondes, 1879; Spectacles contemporains (Loris-Melikof; Lettres d'Asie), Paris, 1891.- Voltaire, F. M. A. de, Histoire de l'empire de Russie, sous Pierre le Grand, Paris, 1809.

Waliszewski, K., Peter the Great, London, 1897, 2 vols.; A History of Russian Literature, London and New York, 1900. (Short History of the Literature of the World, vol. 8); L'héritage de Pierre le Grand : règne de femmes, gouvernments des favoris (1725–1741), Paris, 1900. Wallace, D. M., Russia, London, 1877, 2 vols.

Donald Mackenzie Wallace was born November 11th, 1841. Studied at the universities of Edinburgh, Berlin, Heidelberg, and the École de Droit of Paris. Resided and travelled in various foreign countries, chiefly in France, Germany, Russia, and Turkey, during the years 1863-1884. From 1884 to 1889 he was private secretary to Lords Dufferin and Lansdowne while they were viceroys of India, and during 1890-1891 he accompanied the czarevitch during his tour in India and Ceylon. In 1883 he published a work on Egypt and the Egyptian Question." His work on "Russia" is universally regarded as the best book on that country that has ever been issued from the pen of an Englishman. Westlaender, A., Russland vor einen Regime-Wechsel: politische und wirthschaftliche Zustände im heutigen Russland, Stuttgart, 1894. Wilson, R., Brief Remarks on the Character and Composition of the Russian Army, and a Sketch of the Campaigns in Poland in 1806 and 1807, London, 1810.- Winckler, A., Die deutsche Hansa in Russland, Berlin, 1886. — Windt, H. de, The New Siberia, London, 1896.- Witte, S. J., Samoderzhavie i zemstvo (Autocracy and Local Representative Government. A Confidential Communication by the Minister of Finance, S. J. Witte, in 1899), Stuttgart, 1901.-Wolkonski, Prince S., Pictures of Russian History and Russian Literature, Boston, 1897.— Wright, G. F., Asiatic Russia, New York, 1902, 2 vols.

Yozefovitch, T., Dogovori Rossii s Vostokom, polititcheskie i torgovye (The Commercial and Political Treaties of Russia with the East), St. Petersburg, 1869.

A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY

OF THE HISTORY OF

RUSSIA

862 The Varangian chieftains Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor settle at Ladoga, Bielo-ozero and Izborsk. This date is purely conventional.

865 Askold and Dir, two Varangian chieftains who had settled at Kiev, lead an unsuccessful expedition against Constantinople.

879 Rurik dies, leaving the regency of the principality and the guardianship of his son Igor to Oleg.

882 Oleg takes possession of Kiev after killing Askold and Dir, and makes that city his capital.

907 Oleg leads an expedition consisting of eighty thousand men and two thousand boats against Constantinople. A treaty of peace and commerce is concluded.

911 Oleg renews the treaty with the emperor of Constantinople securing valuable trading privileges for the Russians.

913 Oleg dies, and is succeeded by Igor.

941 Igor leads an expedition against Constantinople. His ships are destroyed by the Greek fire, and with great difficulty he brings his troops back to Kiev. 944 Igor leads a second expedition against Constantinople. The Byzantines rid themselves of the barbarians by renewing the treaty that had been made with Oleg and also paying a ransom. The treaty is given in full by Nestor. Of the fifty names attached to it three are Slavonic and the rest Norse, which shows that the two races, the conquerors and the conquered, are beginning to be fused.

945 Igor is killed by the Drevlians, a Slavonic tribe. His wife Olga assumes the regency during the minority of his son Sviatoslav.

955 Olga embraces Greek Christianity. Her subjects, however, remain on the whole pagans.

964 Sviatoslav assumes the rule. He is the first of the Varangians to bear a Slavonic

name.

968 Sviatoslav, in the pay of the Byzantine emperor Nicephoros, leads an army of 60,000 men against the Bulgarians of the Danube.

970 Sviatoslav, after dividing the country among his three sons, again marches to Bulgaria, this time on his own account.

972 Sviatoslav is defeated at Silistria and compelled to evacuate the Balkan peninsula. 973 On his retreat, Sviatoslav is surprised and killed by the Petchenegs of the Dnieper. 977 Rout of Oleg by Iaropolk and his death.

980 Vladimir, after killing Iaropolk, becomes sole ruler.

988 Vladimir is baptized and makes Greek Christianity the state religion. On the day of his baptism he marries a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Romanos II. 1015 Vladimir dies and the country is divided among his eight sons and a nephew. 1019 Iaroslav, prince of Novgorod and the youngest son of Vladimir, finally becomes grand prince, and removes his capital to Kiev.

1054 Iaroslav dies. The country is divided among his five sons, one of whom, Iziaslav, is recognised as grand prince of Kiev. The custom, first introduced by Sviatoslav of breaking up the country into appanages, has now reached its full fruition. Russia has become an extremely loose federation of principalities. The central

authority has been reduced to a nullity, and the period is filled with wars among the petty princes. This, of course, weakened the power of Russia for resisting foreign invaders, and made it an easy prey to the eastern nomadic tribes, from the Polovtsi to the Tatars. The chief events during this period are the foundation of Moscow (1147), the rise of Suzdal in Vladimir, and the pillaging of Kiev (1169) by Prince Andrew Bogoliubski of Suzdal. The hegemony of Kiev comes to an end for all time. The principal figures during this period are those of Vladimir II, surnamed Monomakh (1113-1125), and of Andrew Bogoliubski (1157-1175), who strove to re-establish some sort of unity and was assassinated by his nobles. 1068 The people of Kiev liberate Vseslav and make him grand prince.

1069 Iziaslav is restored by Boleslaw the Bold of Poland.

1073 Iziaslav is again expelled from Kiev by his brothers Sviatoslav and Vsevolod. Sviatoslav becomes grand prince.

1076 Death of Sviatoslav. He is succeeded by Vsevolod.

1077 Iziaslav is again restored to the grand princedom.

1078 Iziaslav dies and is succeeded by Vsevolod.

1084 Failure of Vsevolod's attempt to conquer Tmoutorakan (Tmutarakan).

1093 Death of Vsevolod and accession of Sviatopolk, the second son of Iziaslav. The Polovtsi defeat the Russians in the battle of Tripole.

1097 The congress of princes at Lubetz.

1100 The congress of princes at Uvetitchi.

1111 Defeat of the Polovtsi on the Sula.

1113 Death of Sviatopolk and accession of Vladimir Monomakh.

1125 Death of Monomakh.

1147 Legendary date for the foundation of Moscow.

1157 Andrew Bogoliubski becomes prince of Suzdal.

1169 Kiev is captured and plundered by Andrew Bogoliubski.

1175 Andrew Bogoliubski is assassinated.

1221 Nijni-Novgorod is founded by Iuri, grand prince of Suzdal.

1223 First invasion of Russia by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. The Russians are defeated on the banks of the Kalka, near where it flows into the Sea of Azov and adjoining the present site of the town of Mariupol.

1237-38 The Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan's grandson, Batu, invade northern Russia, burn Moscow, defeat twice the army of Suzdal (at Kolomna on the Oku and on the Sit), and plunder Riazan, Suzdal, Iaroslavl, and Tver. But Novgorod is spared. 1239-40 The Mongols ravage southern Russia, burn Tchernigov and Kiev, and extend their conquests as far west as Volhinia and Galicia. All Russia is now under the yoke of the Mongols, except the territory of Novgorod.

1240 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, defeats the Swedes on the Neva; whence his surname Nevski.

1242 Batu establishes the Golden Horde of Kiptchak, with Sarai, on one of the mouths of the Volga, as its capital. It constituted one of the five divisions of the great empire of Jenghiz Khan.

1245 Alexander Nevski defeats the German Sword-bearing Knights on Lake Peipus, in the "battle of the ice."

1260 Novgorod submits to the Mongols and consents to pay tribute.

1263 Death of Alexander Nevski.

1303 Death of Daniel Alexandrovitch, founder of the Moscow dynasty.

1320 Prince Michael of Tver is executed by order of the khan.

1321 Vladimir in Volhinia is conquered by the Lithuanians. Kiev and all west Russia soon become Lithuanian.

1404 Smolensk is annexed to Lithuania. A son of Alexander Nevski, named Daniel, was the founder of the principality of Moscow, to which he added the cities of Kolomna and Pereiaslavl. He was succeeded by his son Iuri Danilovitch (1303-1325), who annexed Mozhaisk. In 1313 he marries a sister of Usbek Khan. In 1320 he is appointed grand prince in place of his murdered rival, Michael of Tver. Iuri is the initiator of the Muscovite policy to dominate Russia with the aid of the Tatars, for whom the Muscovite princes henceforth act as tax collectors. In 1325 he was assassinated by Dmitri, son of Michael of Tver, and Alexander, Michael's second son is appointed grand prince. But the grand princedom soon reverts to Moscow, and Alexander is executed in 1329. Iuri is succeeded by his brother Ivan Kalita (1328-1340), who receives from Usbek Khan Vladimir and Novgorod together with the grand princedom, and who also adds Tver to his dominions. He assures the pre-eminence of Moscow in the Russian church by inducing the metropolitan to reside there, thereby also securing the alliance of the all-powerful church in the realisation of his political schemes. Simeon the Proud, son of Kalita (1340-1353), Ivan II, (1353-1359), brother of Simeon, and Dmitri Donskoi (1359-1389), son of Ivan II, continue the policy of dominating Russia with the aid of the Tatars,

whom they conciliate with Russian gold, while they gain the support of the nobles by enhancing their power at the expense of the princes of appanages. Towards the end of his reign Dmitri feels himself strong enough to resist the Tatars, whom he defeats in the battle of Kulikovo (1380); but two years later the Mongol general, Toktamish, invades Russia, burns Moscow and puts to death a great number of the inhabitants. Dmitri was succeeded by his son Vasili (1389-1425). On the death of the latter, first his brother, and then his brother's son, laid claim to the succession; but the direct lineal succession triumphed twice in the person of Vasili's son, known as Vasili the Blind (1425-1462).

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1407 The river Ugra is made the boundary between Moscow and Lithuania.

1408 Invasion of Moscow by the Tatars, who burn many towns and villages, but fail to capture the Kremlin.

1412 Vasili Dmitrievitch goes to the Horde, pays tribute, and the khan confirms to him the grand princedom.

1435 Vasili Vasilievitch blinds his cousin Vasili Kossoi.

1446 Vasili Vasilievitch is blinded by Dmitri Shemiaka of Galicia.

1448 The archbishop Jonas is elected metropolitan by an assembly of the Russian bishops, without regard to the patriarch of Constantinople.

1453 Dmitri Shemiaka is poisoned.

1462 Ivan III, son of Vasili ascends the throne. He assumes the title gossudar (lord, autocrat), and is regarded as the founder of autocracy.

1463 The princes of Iaroslav cede their domain to Moscow.

1464 Ivan gives the hand of his sister to Vasili, prince of Riazan, thus making sure of the approximate annexation of that appanage.

1469 The khanate of Kazan becomes a dependency of Moscow.

1472 Ivan conquers Perm. Marries the Byzantine princess Sophia, niece of the last emperor of Constantinople, Constantine Palæologus. Assumes the title of czar and adopts the two-headed eagle as the symbol of his authority. In consequence of this marriage many Greeks come to Moscow, bringing with them Byzantine culture.

1474 The princes of Rostov sell their domain to Moscow. 1478 The republic of Novgorod is annexed. The principal citizens are brought prisoners to Moscow, their property is confiscated, the possessions of the clergy serve to endow the boyar followers of Ivan. Ahmed, khan of the Golden Horde, sends ambassadors demanding homage. Ivan puts the envoys to death, except one, who was to take back the news to his master. The reply of Ahmed to this outrage is a declaration of war. 1479 Ivan issues Sudebnik, or Books of Laws, second Russian code after the Russkaia Pravda of Iaroslav. A comparison of two codes shows how much the Russian character was lowered by Mongol domination; it is in the reign of Ivan that we first hear of the use of the knout. 1480 The Mongols invade Russia. The two armies meet on the banks of the Oka and flee from each other in mutual fear. On his retreat Ahmed is killed and his army is annihilated by the Nogai Tatars.

1482 Cannon is used for first time at the siege of Fellin in Livonia. It was founded by the architect and engineer Aristotle Fioraventi of Bologna, the builder of the Kremlin.

1485 The principality of Tver is annexed to Moscow.

1485 The last prince of Vereya leaves his domains by will to Ivan.

1489 Viatka, a daughter of the city of Novgorod and Pskov, and like them a republic, is annexed.

1489 Poppel comes to Moscow as the first German ambassador.

1491 Mines of Petchora discovered. For first time silver and copper money is coined at Moscow from produce of Russian mines.

1492-1503 A large part of Little Russia is reconquered from Lithuanians.

1494 Alexander of Lithuania marries Ivan's daughter Helen.

1495 Ivan, considering himself to have been insulted by a Hanseatic city, orders all merchants of all the cities of that union at Novgorod to be put in chains and their property confiscated. This marks the end of Novgorod's commercial greatness.

1499 The princes of Tchernigov and Novgorod-Seversk come over to Moscow.