12. In the US, the lack of vitamin A in non-corn poultry rations can be readily (and economically) overcome by adding vitamin A supplements. A lack of xanthophylls poses a problem only if consumers insist on poultry with a yellow color; it does not affect the growth rate of birds. Using alfalfa meal as a source of xanthophylls lowers the overall energy level of the ration, so when corn is too expensive, US poultry growers prefer to enhance the xanthophylls content of broiler rations with either corn gluten meal, a by-product of starch and glucose manufactured from corn by the wet milling process, or with "aztec gold", a type of corn meal imported from Mexico. In any case, consumer preference for high-pigment poultry is not unanimous in the US, as a recent study has shown. After all, the pigmentation provides eve appeal only to the dressed and uncooked poultry; it does not affect the taste or appearance of cooked poultry.

13. The difference in energy supplied by corn and wheat is reflected in the feed conversion rates applicable in broiler rations. Using Some of the improved corn rations, US broiler growers obtain a pound of liveweight chickens from 2.1 to 2.2 pounds of feed (producing a 3.5 pound, liveweight, broiler in 8 weeks). Reducing the energy level of the ration by 100 calories per pound can increase the feed requiretent to 2.3 to 2.4 pounds.5

14. The higher energy density of corn also gives it an advantage over other grains in swine rations. Hence, wheat substitutes for corn at only a 1 to 1 ratio, despite the higher protein level of wheat (13 percent) compared with corn (9 percent). Although the performance of other well formulated rations may approach that of corn rations in terms of the rates of weight gain per unit of time and per unit of feed, adding some corn to wheat rations invariably improves feeding

efficiency.

15. The predominance of the corn-soybean meal combination in US swine and poultry rations has led livestock nutritionists to discuss the performance of the combination rather than the separate effect.

The energy density of non-corn broiler rations can be boosted by adding some type of fat, e.g., inedible low. Fat provides 2.25 times the energy of carbohydrates. However, fat is usually too expensive to be used

TABLE 3-COST OF NUTRIENTS IN SELECTED LIVESTOCK FEEDS DELIVERED AT ROTTERDAM

(7)

(

Fishmeal, 65 percent protein guarantee.

65.0

16 (57.2)

16 (75.6)

(1)

17,180-18 206

315-360

238-272

129

1 Except as noted, values are from Morrison, "Feeds and Feeding," 22d edition, app. I and II.
From FAS reporting and calculated, if necessary, from prices per bushel.

3 Calculated from percent of nutrients and price per ton.

footnote e.
4 Estimated from Nov. 22 prices for nos. 2 and 3 yellow corn, $55.60 and $55.70, respectively. See

$ FAS, "Foreign Agriculture," Nov. 22, 1971 p. 9. Prices are for Nov. 17, 1971. There are offer
prices and not sale prices. Offer prices tend to be higher than actual sale prices.

6 U.S. No. 2 sorghum.

7 Not available.

U.S. No. 2 Dark Northern Spring, 14 percent protein.

Estimated on the basis of TDN/net energy ratio of wheat, average of all types.

10 U.S. No. 2 Hard Winter, 13.5 percent protein.

Barley can supply up to 80.1 therms per 100 pounds when fed to dairy cows.

12 U.S. No. 3 feed barley. Offer price at this time was significantly above actual sale price.

13 Oats of this classification can supply as much as 72.1 therms per hundredweight net energy
ration is reduced.
when fed as the chief grain to dairy cows. Also, the energy supplied by oats tends to be higher,
even as high as 80.1 therms per hundredweight, when the ratio of oats to total concentrates in the

15 The price is for Nov. 17.
with Argentine oats, $50 to $51.25 and Scandinavian oats, $48.25.
14 United States and Canadian feed oats, offering price at Rotterdam Nov. 22-30. This compares

16 Estimated on the basis of the nutrient ratios in "all analysis" fishmeal. However, the nutrient
protein or total digestible nutrients than the "all analysis" average.
ratios of fishmeal can vary widely so 65 percent protein fishmeal might not furnish any more digestible

17 Peruvian, 65 percent fishmeal, adjusted to Nov. 20-27, 1971, basis according to relationship to
18 South African, 65 percent fishmeal, Nov, 20-27, 1971.
South African fishmeal. On Nov. 30, 1971, Peruvian fishmeal was priced at $160 to $165 f.o.b. Europe.

of soybean meal. The advantage of using soybean meal in swine rations compared with other oilmeal sources of protein feed might be illustrated by the following ranking:

Relative performance in terms of both average daily gains and total feed required per unit of gain.

Of these combinations, corn and soybean meal best compensate for each other's nutritional shortcomings. The use of any other grains or any other protein feeds requires a more complex formulation of the ration in order to eliminate such deficiencies. Both cottonseed and sunflower oil meal, which are produced in quantity in the USSR, can be used in Soviet feed rations.

16. Swine nutritionists have directed attention to the success of US swine rations comprised of corn and soybean meal without any animalorigin protein feeds. Using such rations, as little as 360 pounds of feed (including feed for breeding animals) is required per 100 pounds of hogs marketed. Not long ago many large scale American hog farmers found that using the entire soybean-the oil as well as the meal ground and cooked on the farm-may be more economical than repurchasing soybean oil meal from commercial processors. Current prices of corn and soybeans, however, seem to favor feeding soybean meal rather than soybeans.

17. Holding "technical" qualities constant, the economic substitutability of corn and soybean meal for other energy or protein feeds in livestock rations is best described by a continuous function. The selected mix of the livestock ration largely depends on the economic constraints of factor-factor and factor-product price ratios. This is not to say that alternative ingredients substitute at constant rates over all levels or combinations of use. The question is whether, in view of their limited foreign exchange, the Soviets should be buying corn instead of other grains, and feed grains instead of protein feeds. As stated above, the Soviets need additional concentrate (energy) feeds. The discussion above suggests that if the Soviets decide to purchase grain, American corn is likely to be their best buy.

18. The Soviets also have great need for more protein feeds. The Russian climate, which favors small grains rather than corn, also restricts the cultivation of soybeans. Therefore, the Soviets must rely on other, less desirable types of crops as sources of supplemental protein. The shortage of feed protein, however, in some measure depends on the energy level of rations, and the Soviets might feel their current need for feed energy exceeds their need for supplemental protein. Finally, the Soviets have not yet exhausted their own sources of protein feed.

19. Sunflowerseed and cottonseed are the main sources of high protein meal of plant origin in the USSR; in the last 2 years production of these oilseeds averaged 5.9 and 4.4 million tons respectively. Sunflower seeds, which are the world's best in terms of oil content, supply about 4 of all the vegetable oil produced, but cottonseed, because of its lower oil and higher meal content, currently supplies perhaps almost as much meal (see Table 4). Soviet output of cottonseed rose to record levels in 1970 and 1971, while the production of

sunflower seeds has been declining; sunflower seed output in 1971 was 15% below the record level of 1966, largely because of lower yields. Whereas cotton yields have improved in the past 2 years, as a result of better control of wilt, indications are that disease problems as well as weather curtailed output of sunflower seeds in recent years.

1 Calculated on the basis of total output of seed (U.S.S.R. data) and U.S. extraction rates for meal (USDA).

20. Reports by US visitors to Russian farms emphasize the poor quality of stored forage crops, indicating that much of the original protein as well as other feed nutrients are lost because of faulty harvesting and storage practices. Given the shortage of soybean meal and other high protein feeds, US agriculturists are surprised that the Soviets are not more actively pursuing the development of a new technology known as fractionation, a process of extracting and concentrating protein portions of crops not now regarded as sources of high protein feeds.

21. By improving the quality of stored forages and by using more urea, the Soviets could increase protein feed supplies. Why they do not rely more on urea, a non-organic source of protein for ruminants, is a mystery in view of the Soviet supplies of this chemical. Presumably, its value for feeding should exceed its value as a fertilizer. Urea cannot be utilized by non-ruminants but when the substance is properly fed to ruminants, the rumen flora utilize the inorganic nitrogen in their own metabolism and subsequently are themselves digested as protein by the ruminants. By feeding urea to ruminants, more of the organic protein feeds could be made available to non-ruminant livestock. Apparently the prevailing technology, particularly a lack of feed mixing facilities, limits the feeding of urea in the USSR. Because of its nature, the successful feeding of urea requires that a small quantity be thoroughly mixed with some high energy feed such as

7 The USSR produced about 3 million tons of urea (actual weight) in 1970. The quantity fed to livestock is uncertain. According to Baranov (Spravochnik po ekonomike khimizatsii selskovo khozyaystra, Moscow, 1967) the urea used in livestock feeding amounted to 40,000 tons in 1961; 76,000 tons in 1962, and about 300,000 tons in 1965. However, according to another source, only 50,000-70,000 tons were used in livestock feeding in 1969 (Khimiya v seľ’skom khozyaystve, No. 4, 1970).

grain or molasses. Since urea does not supply energy, it requires at least 14 pounds of urea plus 100 pounds of corn or other grain to equal 100 pounds of soybean meal in livestock feeding.

22. In sum, the USSR has a clear incentive to use more corn and soybean in its livestock rations. Minister of Agriculture Matskevitch put his country's dilemma neatly, while suggesting the solution:

The climate in our country does not favor soybeans and corn, and to have a balanced feed we need both. The USSR is determined to reach its livestock goals. The question is, how soon? Time is important to us. We want to fulfill the plan as soon as possible. Thus, interim purchases of US corn and soybean meal would be a "quick fix" approach to the Soviet feed problem-provided, of course, that the necessary financial arrangements can be made.