is not that

of the despot.

VII. 3. rule is despotic like that of a master over slaves, for there But all rule is as great a difference between the rule over freemen and the rule over slaves as there is between slavery by nature and freedom by nature, about which I have said Not better, enough at the commencement of this treatise. And it 3 is equally a mistake to place inactivity above action, for happiness is activity, and the actions of the just and wise are the realization of much that is noble.

inasmuch

as happi

ness implies activity.

But perhaps some one, accepting these premises, may still maintain that supreme power is the best of all things, because the possessors of it are able to perform the But, if so, greatest number of noble actions. If so, the man who is 4 most power able to rule, instead of giving up anything to his neighmost good, bour, ought rather to take away his power; and the

he who has

father should make no account of his son, nor the son of his father, nor friend of friend; they should not bestow a thought on one another in comparison with this higher object, for the best is the most eligible and 'doing well' Reductio ad is the best. There might be some truth in such a view

absurdum

of this

doctrine.

Only the supremely best man

has a right

to absolute power.

if we assume that robbers and plunderers attain the chief 1325 b.
good. But this can never be; and hence we infer the view 5
to be false. For the actions of a ruler cannot really be
honourable, unless he is as much superior to other men
as a husband is to a wife, or a father to his children, or a
master to his slaves. And therefore he who violates the
law can never recover by any success, however great,
what he has already lost in departing from virtue. For
equals share alike in the honourable and the just, as is
just and equal. But that the unequal should be given 6
to equals, and the unlike to those who are like, is con-
trary to nature, and nothing which is contrary to nature
is good. If, therefore, there is any one superior in
virtue and in the power of performing the best actions,
him we ought to follow and obey, but he must have the 7
capacity for action as well as virtue.

If we are right in our view, and happiness is assumed

Cp. i. c. 5, 6, 7.

b Cp. iii. 13. § 25, and 17. § 7.

THE CONDITIONS OF THE PERFECT STATE. 213

virtuous

best, but

external

to be virtuous activity, the active life will be the best, VII. 3. 8 both for the city collectively, and for individuals. Not The life of that a life of action must necessarily have relation to activity the others, as some persons think, nor are those ideas only this is not to be regarded as practical which are pursued for the confined to sake of practical results, but much more the thoughts actions. and contemplations which are independent and complete in themselves; since virtuous activity, and therefore action, is an end, and even in the case of external actions 9 the directing mind is most truly said to act. Neither, again, is it necessary that states which are cut off from others and choose to live alone should be inactive; for there may be activity also in the parts; there are many ways in which the members of a state act upon one 10 another. The same thing is equally true of every indi- There may vidual. If this were otherwise, God and the universe, inward who have no external actions over and above their own energy, like the divine, energies, would be far enough from perfection. Hence both in states and it is evident that the same life is best for each individual, individuals. and for states, and for mankind collectively.

be an

terials of

state.

Thus far by way of introduction. In what has pre- 4. ceded I have discussed other forms of government; in The mawhat remains the first point to be considered is what the ideal should be the conditions of the ideal or perfect state; 2 for the perfect state cannot exist without a due supply of the means of life. And therefore we must presuppose many purely imaginary conditions, but nothing impossible. There will be, a certain number of citizens, 3 a country in which to place them, and the like. As the weaver or shipbuilder or any other artisan must have 1326 a. the material proper for his work (and in proportion as this is better prepared, so will the result of his art be nobler), so the statesman or legislator must also have the materials suited to him.

4

First among the materials required by the statesman Population. is population: he will consider what should be the

* Cp. c. 1. § 10.

b Cp. ii. 6. § 7.

Extent.

state not

greatest.

VII. 4. number and character of the citizens, and then what should be the size and character of the country. Most persons think that a state in order to be happy ought to be large; but even if they are right, they have no idea what is a large and what a small state. For they judge of the 5 size of the city by the number of the inhabitants; whereas they ought to regard, not their number, but their power. A city too, like an individual, has a work to do; and that city which is best adapted to the fulfilThe largest ment of its work is to be deemed greatest, in the same always the sense of the word great in which Hippocrates might be called greater, not as a man, but as a physician, than some one else who was taller. And even if we reckon 6 greatness by numbers, we ought not to include everybody, for there must always be in cities a multitude of slaves and sojourners and foreigners; but we should include those only who are members of the state, and who form an essential part of it. The number of the latter is a proof of the greatness of a city; but a city which produces numerous artisans and comparatively few soldiers cannot be great, for a great city is not to be confounded with a populous one. Moreover, experience shows that a 7 very populous city can rarely, if ever, be well governed; since all cities which have a reputation for good government have a limit of population. We may argue on grounds of reason, and the same result will follow. For 8 law is order, and good law is good order; but a very great multitude cannot be orderly: to introduce order into the unlimited is the work of a divine power-of such a power as holds together the universe. Beauty is realized in number and magnitude, and the state which 9 combines magnitude with good order must necessarily be the most beautiful. To the size of states there is a as in works limit, as there is to other things, plants, animals, implements; for none of these retain their natural power 10 when they are too large or too small, but they either

The number of warriors

and councillors the test.

A limit necessary,

of art, plants, animals.

* Cp. Poet. 7. § 4.

THE NUMBER OF THE CITIZENS.

215

should be

large nor

too small;

enough to

wholly lose their nature, or are spoiled. For example, VII. 4. a ship which is only a span long will not be a ship at A state all, nor a ship a quarter of a mile long; yet there may neither too 1326b.be a ship of a certain size, either too large or too small, 11 which will still be a ship, but bad for sailing. In like but large manner a state when composed of too few is not as a be selfstate ought to be, self-sufficing; when of too many, small though self-sufficing in all mere necessaries, it is a nation be welland not a state, being almost incapable of constitutional governed. government. For who can be the general of such a vast multitude, or who the herald, unless he have the voice of a Stentor?

sufficing,

enough to

should

A state then only begins to exist when it has attained a population sufficient for a good life in the political com12 munity: it may indeed somewhat exceed this number. But, as I was saying, there must be a limit. What should be the limit will be easily ascertained by experience. For both governors and governed have duties to perform; the special functions of a governor are to command and 13 to judge. But if the citizens of a state are to judge and The citizens to distribute offices according to merit, then they must know one know each other's characters; where they do not possess another. this knowledge, both the election to offices and the decision of lawsuits will go wrong. When the population is very large they are manifestly settled at haphazard, 14 which clearly ought not to be. Besides, in an overpopulous state foreigners and metics will readily acquire the rights of citizens, for who will find them out? Clearly then the best limit of the population of a state is the largest number which suffices for the purposes of life, and can be taken in at a single view. Enough concerning the size of a city.

Much the same principle will apply to the territory of 5. 7 the state: every one would agree in praising the state which is most entirely self-sufficing; and that must be the state which is all-producing, for to have all things

• Cp. v. 9. § 7.

should have leisure.

VII. 5. and to want nothing is sufficiency. In size and extent it They should be such as may enable the inhabitants to live temperately and liberally in the enjoyment of leisurea. Whether we are right or wrong in laying down this limit 2 we will enquire more precisely hereafter, when we have occasion to consider what is the right use of property and wealth: a matter which is much disputed, because men are inclined to rush into one of two extremes, some into meanness, others into luxury.

The territory should be defen

sible.

It is not difficult to determine the general character of 3 the territory which is required; there are, however, some points on which military authorities should be heard; they tell us that it should be difficult of access to the enemy, and easy of egress to the inhabitants. Further, we require 1327 a. that the land as well as the inhabitants of whom we were just now speaking should be taken in at a single view, for a country which is easily seen can be easily protected. As to the position of the city, if we could should have have what we wish, it should be well-situated in regard a good central posi- both to sea or land. This then is one principle, that it 4 should be a convenient centre for the protection of the whole country: the other is, that it should be suitable for receiving the fruits of the soil, and also for the bringing in of timber and any other products.

The city

tion.

6.

Should it be near the

to be said for and against.

Reasons against.

Whether a communication with the sea is beneficial to a well-ordered state or not is a question which has often sea? Much been asked. It is argued that the introduction of strangers brought up under other laws, and the increase of population, will be adverse to good order (for a maritime people will always have a crowd of merchants coming and going), and that intercourse by sea is inimical to good government. Apart from these considerations, it would be undoubtedly better, both with a view to safety and to the provision of necessaries, that the city and territory should be connected with the sca; the defenders of a 3 country, if they are to maintain themselves against an b Cp. c. 8-10 infra (?). • Cp. Plato Laws iv. 704 ff.

Many

reasons for.

* Cp. ii. 6. § 9.