they make revolutions, and change forms of government, V. 12. even although they have not wasted their substance because they might do what they liked-of which extravagance he declares excessive freedom to be the cause a does not re Finally, although there are many forms of oligarchies (9) and he and democracies, Socrates speaks of their revolutions as cognize the though there were only one form of either of them. • Rep. viii. 564. different forms either of oligarchies or of demo cracies. VI. 1. Subjects already discussed. How the several kinds of government are constructed. Various combinations. BOOK VI. We have now considered the varieties of the deliberative or supreme power in states, and the various arrangements of law-courts and state offices, and which of them are adapted to different forms of government. We have also spoken of the destruction and preservation of states, how and from what causes they arise. 3 Of democracy and all other forms of government there a are many kinds; and it will be well to assign to them severally the modes of organization which are proper and advantageous to each, adding what remains to be said about them. Moreover, we ought to consider the various combinations of these modes themselves; for such combinations make constitutions overlap one another, so that aristocracies have an oligarchical character, and constitutional governments incline to democracies d. When I speak of the combinations which remain to be 4 considered, and thus far have not been considered by us, I mean such as these:-when the deliberative part of the government and the election of officers is constituted oligarchically, and the law-courts aristocratically, or when the courts and the deliberative part of the state are oligarchical, and the election to offices aristocratical, or when in any other way there is a want of harmony in the composition of a state. I have shown already what forms of democracy are 5 suited to particular cities, and what of oligarchy to particular peoples, and to whom each of the other forms of government is suited. Further, we must not only 6 show which of these governments is the best for each ■ Bk. iv. 14-16. b Bk. v. d Cp. iv. 8. § 3 THE ELEMENTS OF DEMOCRACY. 189 state, but also briefly proceed to consider how these VI. 1. and other forms of government are to be established. rieties of First of all let us speak of democracy, which will also bring to light the opposite form of government commonly 7 called oligarchy. For the purposes of this enquiry we The vanced to ascertain all the elements and characteristics of democracy democracy, since from the combinations of these the depend on varieties of democratic government arise. There are 8 several of these differing from each other, and the difference is due to two causes. One (1) has been already (1) differmentioned,-differences of population; for the popular population; element may consist of husbandmen, or of mechanics, or of labourers, and if the first of these be added to the second, or the third to the two others, not only does the democracy become better or worse, but its very nature ences of combina democratic elements. 9 is changed. A second cause (2) remains to be mentioned: (2) different the various properties and characteristics of democracy, tions of the when variously combined, make a difference. For one demonst democracy will have less and another will have more, and another will have all of these characteristics. There is an advantage in knowing them all, whether a man wishes to establish some new form of democracy, or only to re10 model an existing one. Founders of states try to bring together all the elements which accord with the ideas of the several constitutions; but this is a mistake of theirs, as I have already remarked when speaking of the destruction and preservation of states. We will now set forth the principles, characteristics, and aims of such states. the great democracy, The basis of a democratic state is liberty; which, 2. 1317 b. according to the common opinion of men, can only be Liberty, enjoyed in such a state;-this they affirm to be the end of great end of every democracy. One principle of liberty 2 is for all to rule and be ruled in turn, and indeed demo- (1) nucratic justice is the application of numerical not propor- equality; tionate equality; whence it follows that the majority * Cp.iv. 2. § 5. d v. 9. § 7. b Cp. iv. 4. § 21. © Cp. iv. 1. § 7. means merical VI. 2. must be supreme, and that whatever the majority approve must be the end and the just. Every citizen, it is said, must have equality, and therefore in a democracy the poor have more power than the rich, because there are more of them, and the will of the majority is supreme. 3 This, then, is one note of liberty which all democrats affirm to be the principle of their state. Another is that (2) absence a man should live as he likes. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman, and, on the other hand, not to live as a man likes is the mark of a slave. This is the second 4 characteristic of democracy, whence has arisen the claim of men to be ruled by none, if possible, or, if this is impossible, to rule and be ruled in turns; and so it coincides with the freedom based upon equality [which was the first characteristic]. of control. istics of All out of all, all over all, in person or by deputy. Such being our foundation and such the nature of de- 5 Character mocracy, its characteristics are as follows:-the election democracy. of officers by all out of all; and that all should rule over each, and each in his turn over all; that the appointment to all offices, or to all but those which require experience each, each and skill, should be made by lot; that no property in turn over qualification should be required for offices, or only a very low one; that no one should hold the same office twice, or not often, except in the case of military offices; that the tenure of all offices, or of as many as possible, should be brief; that all men should sit in judgment, or that judges selected out of all should judge in all matters, or in most, or in the greatest and most important,—such as the scrutiny of accounts, the constitution, and private contracts; that the assembly should be supreme over all causes, or at any rate over the most important, and the magistrates over none or only over a very fewd. Of all institutions, a council is the most democratic® 6 ■ Cp. v. 9. § 15. b Or (taking ȧpx" in the sense of 'beginning '), 'Such being our foundation, and such being the principle from which we start, the characteristics of democracy are as follows :' C © Cp. iv. 14. § 6. d See note. • Cp.iv. 15. § 1. CHARACTERistics of DEMOCRACY. 191 when there is not the means of paying all the citizens, VI. 2 but when they are paid even this is robbed of its power; for the people then draw all cases to themselves, as I said 7 in the previous discussion. The next characteristic of democracy is payment for services; assembly, law-courts, Pay. magistrates, everybody receives pay, when it is to be had; or when it is not to be had for all, then it is given to the law-courts and to the stated assemblies, to the council and to the magistrates, or at least to any of them who are compelled to have their meals together. And whereas oligarchy is characterised by birth, wealth, and education, the notes of democracy appear to be the 8 opposite of these,-low birth, poverty, mean employment. Another note is that no magistracy is perpetual, but Vestiges of 1318 a. if any such have survived some ancient change in the in a deconstitution it should be stripped of its power, and the mocracy. 9 holders should be elected by lot and no longer by vote. Lot. These are points common to all democracies; but democracy and demos in their truest form are based upon the recognized principle of democratic justice, that all should 'Everybody count equally; for equality implies that the rich should one and have no more share in the government than the poor, and nobody for should not be the only rulers, but that all should rule one." equally according to their numbers". And in this way men think that they will secure equality and freedom in their state. antiquity to count for more than arrange qualifica Next comes the question, how is this equality to be 3. obtained? Is the qualification to be so distributed that By what five hundred rich shall be equal to a thousand poor? and ment of the shall we give the thousand a power equal to that of the tion is five hundred? or, if this is not to be the mode, ought we, be secured? still retaining the same ratio, to take equal numbers from each and give them the control of the elections and of * Cp. iv. 6. § 5. b Transposing ȧnópous and evrópovs, with Bekker's 2nd ed. • Cp. iv. 4. § 22. d Reading with Bekker's 2nd ed. aipérew from conjecture for diapéσewv, which is the reading of the MSS. See note. equality to |