the law, but the multitude, have the supreme power, and IV. 4. 26 supersede the law by their decrees. This is a state of affairs brought about by the demagogues. For in democracies which are subject to the law the best citizens hold the first place, and there are no demagogues; but where the laws are not supreme, there demagogues spring up. For the people becomes a monarch, and is many in in which one; and the many have the power in their hands, not people, 27 as individuals, but collectively. Homer says that 'it is

the tyrant

their

not good to have a rule of many,' but whether he means this corporate rule, or the rule of many individuals, is uncertain. And the people, who is now a monarch, and no longer under the control of law, seeks to exercise monarchical sway, and grows into a despot; the flatterer is held in honour; this sort of democracy being relatively to other democracies what tyranny is to other forms of 28 monarchy. The spirit of both is the same, and they flattered by alike exercise a despotic rule over the better citizens. leaders, The decrees of the demos correspond to the edicts of the tyrant; and the demagogue is to the one what the flatterer is to the other. Both have great power;-the flatterer with the tyrant, the demagogue with democracies 29 of the kind which we are describing. The demagogues set aside make the decrees of the people override the laws, and refer all things to the popular assembly. And therefore they grow great, because the people have all things in their hands, and they hold in their hands the votes of 30 the people, who are too ready to listen to them. Further, those who have any complaint to bring against the magistrates say, 'let the people be judges;' the people are too happy to accept the invitation; and so the authority of every office is undermined. Such a democracy is fairly until the open to the objection that it is not a constitution at all; ceases to be for where the laws have no authority, there is no con31 stitution. The law ought to be supreme over all, and the magistracics and the government should judge of

a Il. 2. 204.

the law,

government

a constitu

tion.

IV. 4. particulars.

5. (1) First form of oligarchy.

(2)

So that if democracy be a real form of government, the sort of constitution in which all things. are regulated by decrees is clearly not a democracy in the true sense of the word, for decrees relate only to particulars.

These then are the different kinds of democracy. Of oligarchies, too, there are different kinds :-one where the property qualification for office is so high that the poor, although they form the majority, have no share in the government, yet he who acquires a qualification may obtain a share. Another sort is when there is a qualifi-1292 b. cation for office, but a high one, and the vacancies in the governing body are filled by co-optation. If the election is made out of all the qualified persons, a constitution of this kind inclines to an aristocracy, if out of a privileged class, to an oligarchy. Another sort of a oligarchy is when the son succeeds the father. There is a fourth form, likewise hereditary, in which the magistrates are supreme and not the law. Among oligarchies this is what tyranny is among monarchies, and the lastmentioned form of democracy among democracies; and Dynastia. in fact this sort of oligarchy receives the name of a dynasty (or rule of powerful families).

(3)

(4)

Govern

ments

which are

not de

or oligar

chies may

stered in

a democratical or

These are the different sorts of oligarchies and demo- 3 cracies. It should however be remembered that in many states the constitution which is established by mocracies law, although not democratic, owing to the character and habits of the people, may be administered democratibe admini- cally, and conversely in other states the established constitution may incline to democracy, but may be adoligarchical ministered in an oligarchical spirit. This most often 4 happens after a revolution: for governments do not change at once; at first the dominant party are content with encroaching a little upon their opponents. laws which existed previously continue in force, but the authors of the revolution have the power in their hands. From what has been already said we may safely infer b Cp. v. 1. § 8.

spirit.

6.

Cp. N. Eth. v. 10. § 7.

form-rural

form, in

that there are so many different kinds of democracies and IV. 6. 2 of oligarchies. For it is evident that either all the classes (1) The first whom we mentioned must share in the government, or democracy. some only and not others. When the class of husbandmen and of those who possess moderate fortunes have the supreme power, the government is administered according to law. For the citizens being compelled to live by their labour have no leisure; and so they set up the authority of the law, and attend assemblies only when 3 necessary. Since they all obtain a share in the government when they have acquired the qualification which is fixed by the law, nobody is excluded-the absolute exclusion of any class would be a step towards oligarchy. But leisure cannot be provided for them unless there are revenues to support them. This is one sort of democracy, and these are the causes which give birth to it. Another kind is based on the mode of election, which (2) Second naturally comes next in ordera; in this, every one to which every whose birth there is no objection is eligible, and may parents are 4 share in the government if he can find leisure. And in shares, but such a democracy the supreme power is vested in the there is no pay given; laws, because the state has no means of paying the citizens. A third kind is when all freemen have a right (3) in which to share in the government, but do not actually share, share, and for the reason which has been already given; so that in 5 this form again the law must rule. A fourth kind of (4) in which 1293 a. democracy is that which comes latest in the history of given. The democracy states. In our own day, when cities have far outgrown of large their original size, and their revenues have increased, all the citizens have a place in the government, through the great preponderance of their numbers; and they all, including the poor who receive pay, and therefore have leisure to exercise their rights, share in the ad6 ministration. Indeed, when they are paid, the common. people have the most leisure, for they are not hindered by the care of their property, which often fetters the

• Or, 'which is proper to it.'

one whose

citizens

all free men

still no pay;

pay is

cities.

IV.6. rich, who are thereby prevented from taking part in the assembly or in the courts, and so the state is governed by the poor, who are a majority, and not by the laws. So many kinds of democracies there are, and 7 they grow out of these necessary causes.

Oligarchies, (1) first

upon

moderate

and the

owners

fewer;

Of oligarchies, one form is that in which the majority form based of the citizens have some property, but not very much; and this is the first form, which allows to any one who property; obtains the required amount the right of sharing in the government. The sharers in the government being s ➡ a numerous body, it follows that the law must govern, and not individuals. For in proportion as they are further removed from a monarchical form of government, and in respect of property have neither so much as to be able to live without attending to business, nor so little as to need state support, they must admit the rule of (2) in which law and not claim to rule themselves. But if the men 9 properties are larger of property in the state are fewer than in the former case, and own more property, there arises a second form of oligarchy. For the stronger they are, the more power they claim, and having this object in view, they themselves select those of the other classes who are to be admitted to the government; but, not being as yet strong enough to rule without the law, they make the law represent their wishes. When this power is intensified 10 by a further diminution of their numbers and increase of their property, there arises a third and further stage of oligarchy, in which the governing class keep the offices in their own hands, and the law ordains that the son shall succeed the father. When, again, the rulers have great 11 wealth and numerous friends, this sort of dynastia or (4) who set family despotism approaches a monarchy; individuals rule and not the law. This is the fourth sort of oligarchy, and is analogous to the last sort of democracy.

(3) nar

rowed to families,

aside the

law.

7.

Two other

There are still two forms besides democracy and oligarchy; one of them is universally recognized and included among the four principal forms of governcracy, and ment which are said to be (1) monarchy, (2) oligarchy, (2) polity.

forms,
(1) aristo-

ARISTOCRACY: THE PURE AND THE MIXED. 121

cracy not

(3) democracy, and (4) the so-called aristocracy or IV. 7. government of the best. But there is also a fifth, which retains the generic name of polity or constitutional government; this is not common, and therefore has not been noticed by writers who attempt to enumerate the 1293 b. different kinds of government; like Plato in his books 2 about the state, they recognize four only. The term (1) Aristo'aristocracy' is rightly applied to the form of government the perfect which is described in the first part of our treatise; for state, that only can be rightly called aristocracy [the government of the best] which is a government formed of the best men absolutely, and not merely of men who are good when tried by any given standard. In the perfect state the good man is absolutely the same as the good citizen; whereas in other states the good citizen is only 3 good relatively to his own form of government. But there are some states differing from oligarchies and also differing from the so-called polity or constitutional government; these are termed aristocracies, and in them magistrates are certainly chosen, both according to their wealth and according to their merit. Such a form of government is not the same with the two just now

government

forms.

4 mentioned, and is termed an aristocracy. For indeed but a mixed in states which do not make virtue the aim of the com- taking three munity, men of merit and reputation for virtue may be found. And so where a government has regard to wealth, virtue, and numbers, as at Carthage, that is aristocracy; and also where it has regard only to two out of the three, as at Lacedaemon, to virtue and numbers, and the two principles of democracy and virtue 5 temper each other. There are these two forms of aristocracy in addition to the first and perfect state, and there is a third form, viz. the politics which incline towards oligarchy.

I have yet to speak of the so-called polity and of 8. tyranny. I put them in this order, not because a polity Polity and or constitutional government is to be regarded as a remain.

tyranny

* Cp. ii. II. §§ 5-10.