[From "The Unemployed Workers", Yale University Press, 1940]

JOB HUNTERS

(BY E. WIGHT BAKKE*)

The foreman tapped Joseph Torrio on the shoulder as he pulled the switch on his machine. "Clapham wants to see you, Joe." "You mean-I'm getting my time, Jim?"

"Just temporary, I hope, and you know what I think of your work, old man. It won't be long-unless-but why worry about it? Clapham will give you the dope."

With a slow step Joe headed for the front office where Clapham, the company's personnel department, was already telling some of his mates what Joe knew to be "the bad news." He sat down on a bench in the outer office. His turn had come. Here he was an 18-year man. Others had been laid off one by one, but he had thought his job was safe. Why, he had been a foreman in the night shift during the war, and now Clapham was going to tell him the bad news. It wouldn't be easy for Clapham, for in spite of the fact that the workers dubbed the personnel department, "the worse-n-hell department," Clapham was a good egg. He knew most of the men by sight if not by name. "Torrio," called the office boy.

As he walked out the front gate he could hardly remember what Clapham had said. He had been thinking his own thoughts. A phrase or two penetrated his preoccupation. "Tough break * * * no new orders *** maybe only a short time *** but better look around, no telling when * * *call you if things pick up."

This was not the first time he had been laid off, but this time the ugly rumors that "the company was slipping," that "the whole damned country is on the rocks," had created a fear he had not felt before. He'd lay off a couple of weeks-he deserved a vacation after 8 years of steady work. But if he didn't get called back in that time, he'd start hunting another job.

Joseph Torrio in 1933 had about 18,000 companions in the city who joined him in this search for work. What kind of job is looking for a job, and how did these workers who had been "told the bad news" go about that task? They came to unemployment with an economic equipment which we have attempted to describe in some detail. We have suggested that they are motivated in their economic activity by the desire to play one or more socially respected roles, to obtain the measure of economic security deemed possible by their associates, to gain an increasing degree of control over their own affairs, to understand the casual forces in their problems of self-maintenance. We

*E. Wright Bakke is Sterling professor of economics, and director of the Labor and Management Center, Yale University.

have surveyed the essential controlling conditions of their economic environment and the effect of these in furthering or frustrating their progress toward these goals. We have recorded the normal adjustments made in the face of these conditions, which adjustments provide them with a stock of habitual practices available as suggestive alternatives in meeting the problem of unemployment.

How did they use this equipment in effecting the new economic adjustments made necessary by the loss of their jobs? In the following chapters we shall try to share the experience of Torrio and his mates as they set about bridging the gap between jobs.

THE JOB OF JOB HUNTING

In a factory town the great majority of workers are accustomed to assume that factory employment is the major, if not the only, possibility of making a living. Joseph Torrio after his 2 weeks' vacation "pounded pavements" for an additional 4 weeks. We need not go with him to every gate, but a sample of his experiences taken from his diary kept for us during that time will help us to understand why he left off searching for that kind of job 6 weeks after his layoff. April 19, 1934

Decided to have a go at the State employment office. Got there at 8. Fellow I knew sitting on steps. Big sign there "No loitering in the doorway." Janitor or someone came down and asked him to move. "Are you going upstairs?" he asked. "If you are, go, but don't sit here." The fellow jumped; not looking at the janitor, he began a loud bluster about his father paying taxes to support the place and he could sit on the steps if he wanted to. When the janitor left, he returned to the steps for a moment. Meanwhile a group of people had gathered to see what was going on.

Asked the janitor when the manager would be in. He said, "9 o'clock." Decided to come back. When I got back, a line had formed clear out into the street. I took my place. Officials and clerks kept coming and had a good cheery word for us as they passed. But after they had gone, many sarcastic remarks followed them like, "Gives you a nice smile, but that's all."

The manager himself drove up before the office a little past 9— appeared sore that there was no parking space in front of the office. The fellows standing outside purposely raised their voices so he could hear and made remarks such as, "Not much use coming here, they never do anything but tell you to come back in 60 days"; "What'd they ever do for me?-Nothing"; "First it was April 1, then it was the 15th, and now it will be God knows when."

One of the young fellows asked an official of the bureau as he entered the building if there was anything in his line available-stated he was a soda jerker or plumber's helper-or he'd "take anything." The official smiled and wanted to know if the fellow was following the ads in the newspaper. The fellow returned to the group, swore a moment, and asked, "Who ever got a job from the ads in a paper?"

Fellow next to me was apparently an electrician. He was sore because he couldn't get a PWA job. He said, "All these contractors have their own men and when this employment office tries to do the hiring for the PWA jobs, it doesn't know where to get off. The PWA

provision reads that the contractor must take men from the State employment bureau where they are able to do the work. Well, the bureau sends its men out. They work for a day, and then they are let go as not fit for the job; then the contractor has fulfilled the specifications and hires his own men."

I register, but they say not much chance today; maybe a week from today. I go out. Tony grabs my arm. He says, "Work?-there is no work. I go to the employment office. I stand and wait. Soonmy turn. I give the girl my card. She takes it, turns it over and over in her hand. Bluff-just to take up time. By and by, she gives it back. Sorry, nothing today.' I say, 'But I no work in 3 years, with seven children, what do I eat?' She reply, 'Come back again, maybe soon there will be something.' It is the big bluff."

Jim joins us at the foot of the stairs. He's mad too. "God, I'm disgusted with this place, and everybody else is that I know. Some fine day a mob's going to drop down on this place and tear it apart. I'm telling you, these fellows from down around Wooster Street aren't going to take this tomorrow business forever."

Looks as though I'd be better off to depend on the grapevine. Word gets around plenty fast if they're taking men on any place.

April 27

Up at 7, cup of coffee, and off to Sargent's. Like to be there when the gang comes to work, the lucky devils. Employment manager not in. Waited in his outer office fitted with 6 benches and about 30 nearly worn out chairs. Took a bench-looked more likely to stay up. Three others waiting, two reporting for compensation. Other one laid off 2 weeks ago and said he called at office every day. He inquired what I was doing and when I said "looking for work" he laughed. "You never work here? No? What chance you think you got when 400 like me who belong here out?" Employment manager showed up at 9:30. I had waited 2 hours. My time has no value. A pleasant fellow; told me in a kind but snappy way business was very bad. What about the future, would he take my name? Said he referred only to the present. Nothing more for me to say, so left. Two more had drifted into office. Suppose they got the same story. Must be a lot of men in New Haven that have heard it by now.

Down Chestnut Street to Peck Bros. Thought something might be going there. Since beer bill they have been calling back old employees, might have use for another hand. No real employment office here. From street into a long hall with two offices both with clerks on each side of hall. Picked the wrong one. Picked the wrong one. Smart flapper didn't even speak just tossed her head and thumb in the direction of across the hall. Went across and another girl at an information desk asked if I had ever worked there before. Told her "No." She said no immediate chance then, but I could file an application; but added, "It won't do you no good as there is plenty of our own men to fill the jobs for some time to come." Guess I won't get a job till they've skimmed the cream from their own men. That's proper of course and a good break for them. But if it's like this all over, what's the point in applying for jobs? Filled out application anyway-might as well, didn't have any better way to spend my time. No one else here looking for

work.

No heart for any more so dropped into Jake's for a doughnut and a glass of milk and then went home.

April 28

To New Haven Clock Co. Met a company "dick" who said plant was shut down till Monday. Gave me an application blank and said, "You look all right, fill this out in ink. Do it neatly, and they may give you a break. Do you know anybody inside?" I said, "No." Then he shrugs his shoulders and says, "Well, I don't know if there is much use you sending this in then, but you might try."

In the afternoon went to the park and talked with men trying to find out what luck they had had. No good news.

May 2

Started out at seven for New Haven Clock Shop. No one in employment_office. Lady at information desk asked, "What do you want?" I told her. She wanted to know if I had worked there before and when I said "No," she didn't even ask if I had any experience in clockmaking (which I have). And when I started to tell her so, she cut me off with, "No use-sorry." Suppose she gets tired too.

From Clock Shop to E. Cowells & Co. who make auto equipment. If they want to have old men, well, I worked here in 1916 and 1917. Didn't get to see anyone here because just as you get to the hall there is a big sign "No Help Wanted." You can't miss it, and I find it kind of hard to disregard a sign of that type. I assume it means what it says or they wouldn't have gone to the trouble and expense to have it painted. I'll have to see a fellow I know who works there. He may know some way to get me on the call list, seeing how I once worked

there.

Having heard Seamless Rubber was working quite steady I went down there. Regular employment office furnished with one bench. Another chap, a foreigner, waiting also. In about 10 minutes a fellow asked us our business and told us very politely they had no jobs even for skilled men, let alone laborers. No use to tell him I wasn't always a laborer for I never had done the skilled jobs on rubber.

Saw a sign hanging out of one place in gilt letters, "No Help Wanted." In gilt, mind you, as if to make it more permanent. Then to Bradley-Smith candymakers, where I had also worked before. The first few days I hadn't had the heart for more than a couple of tries a morning. I'm getting hardened to the word "No" now, though, and can stick it out most of the morning. Bradley-Smith has no employment office. The telephone switchboard operator is apparently instructed to switch off anyone looking for work, as she made quick work of my question. I notice no one seems to be instructed to find out if we know anything about the business or work. Firms might be passing up some good bets for their force. But apparently that isn't important now.

Walking away, met two friends out going the rounds, too. They said it was useless and that they were only looking through force of habit. That's going to be me before long. Even if they hadn't said so. I'm thinking it is useless to run around like this; you just appear ridiculous, and that gets your goat-or would if you kept it up too long. Wish I had some drag with someone on the inside of one of those gates. I expect it's that everyone knows they have to know someone that keeps me from having more company at the employment offices. This is what a former pal of mine who is up at Yale calls "competition in the labor market," I guess. Well, it's a funny competition and with guys you never see.

[From "The Atlantic Monthly," May 1932]

THE HUNGRY CITY

A MAYOR'S EXPERIENCE WITH UNEMPLOYMENT

(BY JOSEPH L. HEFFERNAN)

I

In December 1929, when I was mayor of Youngstown,' I attended a conference on unemployment at Cleveland, called at the request of President Hoover. It was held at the chamber of commerce, under the chairmanship of Mr. Elroy J. Kulas, president of the Otis Steel Co., and was attended by public officials of northern Ohio.

Speaker after speaker told what his community would do to end the depression, and how quickly it would be done. The unemployed were to be set marching gayly back to work without an instant's delay, and the two-car garage was to be made ready for further enlargement.

When it came my turn to speak, I said rather brutally: "This is all plain bunk. We know that our cities and counties are in debt and have bond limitations imposed by the State. If all of us were to start this minute drawing up a program of public improvements, it would require months to get the legislation through. Why not tell the people the truth?"

After the meeting many of the officials said to me: "Mayor, you are right. There isn't much we can do. But we have to go along, don't we?"

Five months later I went to Germany and visited a number of cities. Everywhere I saw that the German people were in a bad way. On returning home, I made a public statement that Germany was on the verge of economic collapse, and predicted that the depression would take 5 years to run its course. Thereupon I asked for a bond issue of $1 million for unemployment relief. Many leading businessmen went out of their way to show their disapproval. One of them voiced the opinion of the majority when he said to me: "You make a bad mistake in talking about the unemployed. Don't emphasize hard times and everything will be all right." An influential newspaper chastised me for "borrowing trouble," the depression would be over, the editor maintained, before relief would be needed.

Discussion dragged on for several months, and the gravity of the situation was so deliberately misrepresented by the entire business community that when the bond issue finally came to a ballot, in November 1930, it was voted down.

1 Mr. Heffernan was mayor for 4 years, from 1927 through 1931. EDITOR.