CHAPTER VII

OTHER MEANS OF POPULAR CONTROL

THE WORK OF THE POLITICAL PARTIES

organ of our

105. The Importance of Party Activities. The im- The political portance of the work done through the political parties party as an must be apparent from the preceding chapter, for govern- government. ment in the United States means government by the people to a large extent acting through political parties. The electors must organize not only to nominate candidates but to secure their election, and the political party has furnished the best form of permanent organization for those persons who hold the same views on public questions or who desire to act together. It would be impossible for the American people to govern our country without some means such as political parties for developing and expressing public sentiment as well as for the great task of filling the numerous public offices. The parties have done and are now doing an inestimable service in uniting the people, in preventing state isolation and sectionalism, and in creating a spirit of harmony in the actual working relations of state and national governments the two great divisions of our federal system (§ 66).

ization.

In order to perform its important work in connection with Party organthe selection of public officials, each party maintains a permanent organization consisting of committees. For the nomination of candidates it uses direct primaries and conventions. As we have already observed how primaries and conventions are composed, and what methods they use in nominating candidates (§§ 94, 95), we need consider only the party committees.

Composition of political party committees.

Executive

106. The permanent party committees are composed of representatives elected by the members of the parties for terms of two to four years. The ward committees, the city committees, and the county committees are chosen in primary elections or are appointed by local conventions made up of delegates selected chiefly for that purpose in the primaries. The members of the state committees are selected by county conventions. The national committees of each party consist of one member from each state, elected by the delegates from that state to the national conventions which nominate candidates for President and Vice President. Reëlection of committeemen being the rule, the committees are more permanent bodies than our county boards or state legislatures. As these committees may hold sessions at any time, and as the local committees usually act in connection with the state and national committees, each party has an organization of considerable power and efficiency.

Just before each important election, special executive committees. committees are appointed to take charge of the campaigns. These may be subcommittees of the permanent committees, or they may represent the candidates or even the leading candidate exclusively. They seldom hamper the regular committees, for political parties, as a rule, subdivide the work to be done and secure the coöperation of their different organizations in such a way as to obtain a maximum of results.

Work in con

primaries.

107. The work of the party committees includes the nection with calling of party conventions and the management of the conventions and election campaigns. They usually propose to the primaries lists of names, popularly known as "slates," and use every means to secure the election of these men as candidates. Conventions are frequently dominated by the committees in the same way, especially when a committee is working for itself and not for the party. During the campaign, both before election and on election day, the committees are very active in securing votes for the party candidates. Because of the completeness of the committee

organization, and the harmony with which the party works together, the whole system of party committees is frequently known as the "machine."

finance.

The task of raising money which is assigned to the cam- Party paign committees often taxes the utmost ingenuity of the party managers. Formerly, speakers and other partisan workers gave their services, expecting to be repaid by offices if the party was successful, but the gradual abandonment of the spoils system (§ 112) has compelled a change of methods. A generation ago an important source to party revenue was the enforced contributions which all officeholders were compelled to give a custom broken up by the first attacks on the spoils system. Revenue to-day comes chiefly from disinterested party men of considerable public spirit, from the candidates, who expend less personally than through committees, and from men whose interests might be affected by the success of the party. Until forbidden by law (§ 103) many corporations contributed to the treasuries of one or both great parties. The legitimate expenses of some campaigns are enormous; the expenditure of the national committees have reached millions and occasionally have covered eight figures. Unfortunately money is used occasionally for the corruption of voters, especially in great cities with a large foreign population.

elective

office.

108. The Parties and Public Office. As public office is Parties and the chief goal of party effort, the success of our republican government depends to a great extent on (1) whether the party organizations depend on the rank and file of the party voters, and (2) whether the "machine uses proper methods. If the party managers nullify the will of the party in either of the vital stages of popular election - the direct primary or the election there is no longer truly popular government. Efforts have been made in recent years to make the party more truly representative of the people by passing direct primary and preferential primary laws. These place primary elections and consequently the nomination of party candidates under the direct supervision of the government, but, as no

Parties and appointive office.

"Rings."

scheme is self-operating, and as organized effort is essential for success under any conditions, good government and popular government do not necessarily follow these reforms in the methods which must now be used.

An inducement even greater than that offered by elective office, because less subject to popular control, is that presented by the large number of appointive positions. More than 100,000 national positions are filled without consulting the National Civil Service Commission (§ 114). Fewer than 100,000 regular paid officials are elected by the voters in our states, counties, cities, and towns, and other local districts, but probably between 300,000 and 400,000 persons besides school teachers are appointed in these same governments, very many of whom are not selected solely or chiefly because of ability. Thus, at present, patronage running up into hundreds of millions a year is the reward not so much of the persons elected as of the power behind the throne the machine. The immense influence wielded because of the control over so many positions, coupled with the advantages that may be derived from expending nearly two billion dollars a year for other purposes, has developed and maintained the machine organization. As the temptation to turn these party organizations into close corporations has, consequently, been too strong to be resisted, except in the rural districts and a few cities, the committees which were meant to serve their party have more often come to dominate it.

109. Bosses and Rings. The misuse of power in controlling appointments and elections, as well as in the making of laws, is the great danger of popular government through parties. Organization is essential for carrying on the work of government. Success may require and usually does require that the organization be so complete that it respond quickly to the commands of its managers, as an army does to the orders of its general. If the managers form a "clique," determined to use the party organization for selfish ends, these partisan dictators form what is known as a ring."

66

A striking instance of the enormous power that may be wielded by a ring is given by the famous Tweed Ring, which controlled the government of New York City for several years, during which more than $100,000,000 from the city treasury was wasted or stolen.

. .

In a ring there is usually some one person who holds The "boss." more strings in his hand than do the others. His superior skill, courage, and force of will make him, as such gifts always do make their possessor, dominant among his fellows. An army led by a council seldom conquers; it must have a commander-in-chief, who settles disputes, decides in emergencies, inspires fear or attachment. The head of the ring is such a general. He dispenses places, rewards the loyal, punishes the mutinous, concocts schemes, negotiates treaties. He generally avoids publicity, preferring the substance to the pomp of power, and is all the more dangerous because he sits, like a spider, hidden in the midst of his web. He is a boss. "1 Boss rule is chiefly objectionable because it represents an extreme concentration of power, with comparatively little chance of enforcing responsibility, although in the long run no boss can maintain his position in the face of popular opposition. This government by bosses and rings that really rule the officials who are supposed to govern us has very aptly been called "invisible government."

ent voting.

110. The Voter and Political Parties. Every voter The question must decide for himself several important questions regard- of independing his relation to the political parties. Shall he remain independent of all the parties, voting first with one and then with another, or shall he be a party man, identifying himself with one party? Will it be best for him to vote always with his party? If not, when shall he espouse the cause of his political opponents, or vote for some other candidates? Many earnest citizens believe that by holding aloof from all parties, they can be independent and vote for the best candidates without prejudice. They, of course, are debarred from 1 Bryce, American Commonwealth, 2d ed., II, 104.