ERDA National Laboratories and through contract support of work by others. Solutions to pollutant transfer problems within the coastal zone are sought through a multidisciplinary approach in which specific energy-related pollutants are traced from source, through transport, to uptake. The findings of this work are used in the development of broad ecological models. Priority is being given to establishing environmental norms of sea states, currents, biology, and existing water chemistry-all essential to developing pollution control and powerplant siting regulations applicable in specific offshore areas.

Examples of marine baseline studies being conducted and supported by ERDA National Laboratories include

(1) Argonne National Laboratory-dispersion and biologic effects of thermal plumes from power reactors

(2) Brookhaven National Laboratory-transport and dispersion of pollutants along the coastal boundary layer, and nutrient regeneration and its impact on productivity in waters of the northeast continental shelf

(3) Lawrence Livermore Laboratory—uptake, retention, and effects of trace elements and radionuclides in coastal marine organisms

(4) Pacific Northwest Laboratory-effects of powerplant effluent on coastal ecosystems, and source term characterization for all energy operations

(5) Savannah River Laboratory-dispersion of radionuclides and other pollutants across the southeastern continental shelf

ERDA currently plans intensification of its biogeochemical studies and broadening of their geographic scope. The program contributes to nuclear reactor safety programs for offshore floating powerplants and to the environmental review responsibilities of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Much of the detailed information being acquired also has general application to other offshore energy-related environmental studies.

Most proposed sites for offshore nuclear powerplants lie within. territorial waters under the jurisdiction of State regulatory agencies. State planning for leasing offshore sites and the administration of powerplant operations are among the purposes of grants to the States administered by NOAA's OCZM. To aid in this planning, NOAA's Office of Sea Grant is supporting studies of powerplant siting and related research. For example, in a continuing multidisciplinary study conducted by the State University of New York with Sea Grant support, university teams are evaluating many aspects of the siting problem, including potential economic and environmental impacts of the offshore powerplants, the effec

tiveness of existing legislation and regulatory agencies, the characteristics and possible uses for heated effluents, and the use of buffer zones and transmission corridors for recreational purposes. The findings of the study are being used extensively by the State's regulatory agencies, local government, private industry, and public interest groups. In another example, the University of Wisconsin, with added financial support from Wisconsin's electric power industry and the State's Department of Natural Resources, has undertaken a research and monitoring program on the discharge of heated water from electric powerplants to Lake Michigan. Combining the resources of industry, the regulatory agencies, a research organization, and with the cooperation and support of others, the scientists participating in the project have developed and applied air-borne radiometers and scanners to record and study the dimensions, directions of flow, and temperatures of the heated water discharges.

Alternate Energy Sources

The energy potential of oceanic waves, currents, salinity gradients, and thermal structure has been known and discussed for many years. The technical feasibility of converting this energy to electricity has been demonstrated for each of these four sources, and limited success has been achieved in generating power for local consumption at a few places where tidal ranges are high and produce sufficiently strong cyclic currents. Of the four, however, the energy available from the oceanic thermal structure apparently far exceeds that from other sources and holds considerable promise of providing power for generating electricity at a moderate capital cost.

Ocean thermal energy is a renewable form of solar energy, resulting from the absorption and storage of heat from the sun in surface waters. The conversion of thermal to electric energy can be accomplished in a number of ways. The preferred conversion method today is one that would use the warm oceanic surface waters to vaporize a turbine-driving fluid and cold subsurface water pumped from greater depths to condense the fluid. (See figure 2.) Associated with such a system are the additional options of producing protein, plant life, minerals, and fresh water. Although no technological breakthroughs or fuel costs are involved, the techniques and costs for the fabrication, installation, operation, maintenance, and energy transport require careful consideration to assure the technical and economic viability of the systems to produce significant quantities of electric power.

In its program of Research Applied to National Needs (RANN), NSF initiated support of studies on Ocean Thermal Energy

Conversion during 1972. ERDA now provides the principal support of these studies. The objectives of the studies are

(1) To establish design and evaluation criteria for viable components and subsystems

(2) To examine the technical and competitive feasibility of various ocean thermal concepts

(3) To investigate possible legal and environmental barriers to technology implementation and the means for resolving and ameliorating such problems

(4) To explore energy conversion, storage, and delivery systems for exploitation of the derived energy

(5) To study potential byproducts of large floating ocean thermal powerplants, fresh water, and chemical fuels

Current studies being conducted at several universities and private companies range from the development of materials and designs for more efficient heat exchangers to the construction and testing of an operating model of an ocean solar powerplant. Most studies are still in the early stages, but they have already resulted in a fluted tube technique to enhance heat transfer and reduce costs, and in the completion of a systems configuration that could be located off the Florida coast and provide electric power to Miami. Preliminary results also suggest that the offshore plants might reasonably produce intermediate chemical products, such as hydrogen, methanol, or ammonia, which in turn could be delivered to landbased plants for use in generating electricity or for other purposes.

Chapter III

MARINE GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS

The last decade has witnessed a revolution in our understanding of the physics of the earth's crust and mantle. Geophysicists now believe that most of the crust of the earth consists of a limited number of large plates and numerous small plates. These plates move apart from ocean ridges, where new material wells up from the mantle, and come together along certain continental margins and island arcs. In these areas one plate may be forced under the other and assimilated back into the mantle. Research into these processes can give new insights into the history of the earth and the movement of continents. It can also provide us with information needed for current practical use.

Plate-tectonic processes involve earthquakes, geothermal activity, and the deposition of certain minerals. The study of plate. tectonics is, therefore, of increasing importance. The findings of these geophysical studies will add to the fundamental understanding that is needed to reduce earthquake damage, to tap geothermal energy sources, and to locate and develop nonliving resources of the oceans as those of land areas become inadequate.

Much of this research is conducted at plate margins, where tectonic processes can most readily be observed. However, studies of the sediments on the continental shelves and ocean bottoms are equally important for finding petroleum and deposits of sand, gravel, and other mineral resources. The mechanical and other physical properties of the shallow sediments must be known for the design and construction of structures resting on the sea floor. In some localities the layering found in undisturbed sediments can provide clues to the history of the earth's climate and aid in research on the possibility of predicting future climate variations.

A new emphasis is now being given to investigations of sedimentary dynamics the patterns (rates and directions) of erosion, transport, and deposition. The change reflects an increasing concern.