Tatishtchev, V. N., Istorya Rossii s samykh drevnyeishikh vremyon (History of Russia from the very Earliest Times), Moscow, 1768.-Tchitchagov, L'Admiral, Mémoires de (17671849), Leipsic, 1862.-Tchitcherin, N., Oblastnyia utchrezhdenya Rossii v 17 vyeke (The Provincial Institutions of Russia in the Seventeenth Century), Moscow, 1856. — Thun, A., Geschichte der revolutionären Bewegungen in Russland, Leipsic, 1883; Landwirthschaft und Gewerbe in Mittelrussland, in Schmoller's Staats-und Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen, Leipsic, 1880.-Thomson, V. L. P., The Relation Between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia, and the Origin of the Russian State, London, 1877.—Tilly, H. A., Eastern Europe and Westtern Asia, London, 1864.-Tissot, V., Russians and Germans: translated from the French by S. L. Simon, London, 1882; La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1884; Russes et Allemands, New York, 1888. Tikhomirov, L., Russia, Political and Social, translated from the French by E. Aveling, London, 1888, 2 vols. — Tolstoi, L. N., La Famine, Paris, 1893.-Tooke, W., Russia; or a Complete Historical Account of all the Nations which Comprise the Russian Empire, London, 1780-1783, 4 vols.; The Life of Catherine II, London, 1800, 3 vols.; A History of Russia from A. D. 862 to 1762, London, 1806, 2 vols. - Turgeniev, N., La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1847, 3 vols. -Tugan-Baranovski, M., Russkaya fabrika v proshlom i nastoyashtchem (The Russian Factory, Past and Present), St. Petersburg, 1898. — Tyrrell, H., History of the (Crimean) War with Russia, London, n. d. 4 vols.

Ustrialov, N., Skazanya knyazya Kurbskavo (The Accounts of Prince Kurbski), St. Petersburg, 1868.

Valikhanov, Veniukov and others, The Russians in Central Asia, translated from the Russian by J. and R. Mitchell, London, 1865. - Vambery, A., Central Asia and the AngloRussian Frontier Question, London, 1874. — Vannovski, P. S., Doklad po povodu studentcheskikh bezporyadkov 1899 g. (Report on the Students' Disorders in the Year 1899), Publication of the Rabotchnoe znamya," 1900. - Vereshtchagin, V., "1812," Napoleon in Russia, London, 1899. - Viniarski, L., Les finances russes (1867-1894), Geneva, 1894. -"Vladimir," (pseud.), Russia on the Pacific and the Siberian Railway, London, 1899. - Vogüé, E. de, La revolte de Pugatchef (Revue des Deux Mondes, 1879; Spectacles contemporains (Loris-Melikof; Lettres d'Asie), Paris, 1891.-Voltaire, F. M. A. de, Histoire de l'empire de Russie, sous Pierre le Grand, Paris, 1809.

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Donald Mackenzie Wallace was born November 11th, 1841. Studied at the universities of Edinburgh, Berlin, Heidelberg, and the École de Droit of Paris. Resided and travelled in various foreign countries, chiefly in France, Germany, Russia, and Turkey, during the years 1863-1884. From 1884 to 1889 he was private secretary to Lords Dufferin and Lansdowne while they were viceroys of India, and during 1890-1891 he accompanied the czarevitch dur ing his tour in India and Ceylon. In 1883 he published a work on Egypt and the Egyptian Question." His work on Russia" is universally regarded as the best book on that country that has ever been issued from the pen of an Englishman.

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A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF

RUSSIA

862 The Varangian chieftains Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor settle at Ladoga, Bielo-ozero and Izborsk. This date is purely conventional.

865 Askold and Dir, two Varangian chieftains who had settled at Kiev, lead an unsuccessful expedition against Constantinople.

879 Rurik dies, leaving the regency of the principality and the guardianship of his son Igor to Oleg.

882 Oleg takes possession of Kiev after killing Askold and Dir, and makes that city his capital.

907 Oleg leads an expedition consisting of eighty thousand men and two thousand boats against Constantinople. A treaty of peace and commerce is concluded.

911 Oleg renews the treaty with the emperor of Constantinople securing valuable trading privileges for the Russians.

913 Oleg dies, and is succeeded by Igor.

941 Igor leads an expedition against Constantinople. His ships are destroyed by the Greek fire, and with great difficulty he brings his troops back to Kiev.

944 Igor leads a second expedition against Constantinople. The Byzantines rid themselves of the barbarians by renewing the treaty that had been made with Oleg and also paying a ransom. The treaty is given in full by Nestor. Of the fifty names attached to it three are Slavonic and the rest Norse, which shows that the two races, the conquerors and the conquered, are beginning to be fused.

945 Igor is killed by the Drevlians, a Slavonic tribe. His wife Olga assumes the regency during the minority of his son Sviatoslav.

955 Olga embraces Greek Christianity. Her subjects, however, remain on the whole pagans.

964 Sviatoslav assumes the rule. He is the first of the Varangians to bear a Slavonic

name.

968 Sviatoslav, in the pay of the Byzantine emperor Nicephoros, leads an army of 60,000 men against the Bulgarians of the Danube.

970 Sviatoslav, after dividing the country among his three sons, again marches to Bulgaria, this time on his own account.

972 Sviatoslav is defeated at Silistria and compelled to evacuate the Balkan peninsula. 973 On his retreat, Sviatoslav is surprised and killed by the Petchenegs of the Dnieper. 977 Rout of Oleg by Iaropolk and his death.

980 Vladimir, after killing Iaropolk, becomes sole ruler.

988 Vladimir is baptized and makes Greek Christianity the state religion. On the day of his baptism he marries a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Romanos II. 1015 Vladimir dies and the country is divided among his eight sons and a nephew. 1019 Iaroslav, prince of Novgorod and the youngest son of Vladimir, finally becomes grand prince, and removes his capital to Kiev.

1054 Iaroslav dies. The country is divided among his five sons, one of whom, Iziaslav, is recognised as grand prince of Kiev. The custom, first introduced by Sviatoslav of breaking up the country into appanages, has now reached its full fruition. Russia has become an extremely loose federation of principalities. The central

authority has been reduced to a nullity, and the period is filled with wars among the petty princes. This, of course, weakened the power of Russia for resisting foreign invaders, and made it an easy prey to the eastern nomadic tribes, from the Polovtsi to the Tatars. The chief events during this period are the foundation of Moscow (1147), the rise of Suzdal in Vladimir, and the pillaging of Kiev (1169) by Prince Andrew Bogoliubski of Suzdal. The hegemony of Kiev comes to an end for all time. The principal figures during this period are those of Vladimir II, surnamed Monomakh (1113-1125), and of Andrew Bogoliubski (1157-1175), who strove to re-establish some sort of unity and was assassinated by his nobles. 1068 The people of Kiev liberate Vseslav and make him grand prince. 1069 Iziaslav is restored by Boleslaw the Bold of Poland.

1073 Iziaslav is again expelled from Kiev by his brothers Sviatoslav and Vsevolod. Sviatoslav becomes grand prince.

1076 Death of Sviatoslav. He is succeeded by Vsevolod.

1077 Iziaslav is again restored to the grand princedom.

1078 Iziaslav dies and is succeeded by Vsevolod.

1084 Failure of Vsevolod's attempt to conquer Tmoutorakan (Tmutarakan).

1093 Death of Vsevolod and accession of Sviatopolk, the second son of Iziaslav. The Polovtsi defeat the Russians in the battle of Tripole.

1097 The congress of princes at Lubetz.

1100 The congress of princes at Uvetitchi.

1111 Defeat of the Polovtsi on the Sula.

1113 Death of Sviatopolk and accession of Vladimir Monomakh.

1125 Death of Monomakh.

1147 Legendary date for the foundation of Moscow.

1157 Andrew Bogoliubski becomes prince of Suzdal.

1169 Kiev is captured and plundered by Andrew Bogoliubski.

1175 Andrew Bogoliubski is assassinated.

1221 Nijni-Novgorod is founded by Iuri, grand prince of Suzdal.

1223 First invasion of Russia by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. The Russians are defeated on the banks of the Kalka, near where it flows into the Sea of Azov and adjoining the present site of the town of Mariupol.

1237-38 The Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan's grandson, Batu, invade northern Russia, burn Moscow, defeat twice the army of Suzdal (at Kolomna on the Oku and on the Sit), and plunder Riazan, Suzdal, Iaroslavl, and Tver. But Novgorod is spared. 1239-40 The Mongols ravage southern Russia, burn Tchernigov and Kiev, and extend their conquests as far west as Volhinia and Galicia. All Russia is now under the yoke of the Mongols, except the territory of Novgorod.

1240 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, defeats the Swedes on the Neva; whence his surname Nevski.

1242 Batu establishes the Golden Horde of Kiptchak, with Sarai, on one of the mouths of the Volga, as its capital. It constituted one of the five divisions of the great empire of Jenghiz Khan.

1245 Alexander Nevski defeats the German Sword-bearing Knights on Lake Peipus, in the "battle of the ice."

1260 Novgorod submits to the Mongols and consents to pay tribute.

1263 Death of Alexander Nevski.

1303 Death of Daniel Alexandrovitch, founder of the Moscow dynasty. 1320 Prince Michael of Tver is executed by order of the khan.

1321 Vladimir in Volhinia is conquered by the Lithuanians. Kiev and all west Russia soon become Lithuanian.

1404 Smolensk is annexed to Lithuania. A son of Alexander Nevski, named Daniel, was the founder of the principality of Moscow, to which he added the cities of Kolomna and Pereiaslavl. He was succeeded by his son Iuri Danilovitch (1303-1325), who annexed Mozhaisk. In 1313 he marries a sister of Usbek Khan. In 1320 he is appointed grand prince in place of his murdered rival, Michael of Tver. Iuri is the initiator of the Muscovite policy to dominate Russia with the aid of the Tatars, for whom the Muscovite princes henceforth act as tax collectors. In 1325 he was assassinated by Dmitri, son of Michael of Tver, and Alexander, Michael's second son is appointed grand prince. But the grand princedom soon reverts to Moscow, and Alexander is executed in 1329. Iuri is succeeded by his brother Ivan Kalita (1328-1340), who receives from Usbek Khan Vladimir and Novgorod together with the grand princedom, and who also adds Tver to his dominions. He assures the pre-eminence of Moscow in the Russian church by inducing the metropolitan to reside there, thereby also securing the alliance of the all-powerful church in the realisation of his political schemes. Simeon the Proud, son of Kalita (1340-1353), Ivan II, (1353-1359), brother of Simeon, and Dmitri Donskoi (1359-1389), son of Ivan II, continue the policy of dominating Russia with the aid of the Tatars,

whom they conciliate with Russian gold, while they gain the support of the nobles by enhancing their power at the expense of the princes of appanages. Towards the end of his reign Dmitri feels himself strong enough to resist the Tatars, whom he defeats in the battle of Kulikovo (1380); but two years later the Mongol general, Toktamish, invades Russia, burns Moscow and puts to death a great number of the inhabitants. Dmitri was succeeded by his son Vasili (1389-1425). On the death of the latter, first his brother, and then his brother's son, laid claim to the succession; but the direct lineal succession triumphed twice in the person of Vasili's son, known as Vasili the Blind (1425-1462).

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1407 The river Ugra is made the boundary between Moscow and Lithuania.

1408 Invasion of Moscow by the Tatars, who burn many towns and villages, but fail to capture the Kremlin.

1412 Vasili Dmitrievitch goes to the Horde, pays tribute, and the khan confirms to him the grand princedom.

1435 Vasili Vasilievitch blinds his cousin Vasili Kossoi.

1446 Vasili Vasilievitch is blinded by Dmitri Shemiaka of Galicia.

1448 The archbishop Jonas is elected metropolitan by an assembly of the Russian bishops, without regard to the patriarch of Constantinople.

1453 Dmitri Shemiaka is poisoned.

1462 Ivan III, son of Vasili ascends the throne. He assumes the title gossudar (lord, autocrat), and is regarded as the founder of autocracy.

1463 The princes of Iaroslav cede their domain to Moscow.

1464 Ivan gives the hand of his sister to Vasili, prince of Riazan, thus making sure of the approximate annexation of that appanage.

1469 The khanate of Kazan becomes a dependency of Moscow.

1472 Ivan conquers Perm. Marries the Byzantine princess Sophia, niece of the last emperor of Constantinople, Constantine Palæologus. Assumes the title of czar and adopts the two-headed eagle as the symbol of his authority. In consequence of this marriage many Greeks come to Moscow, bringing with them Byzantine culture.

1474 The princes of Rostov sell their domain to Moscow. 1478 The republic of Novgorod is annexed. The principal citizens are brought prisoners to Moscow, their property is confiscated, the possessions of the clergy serve to endow the boyar followers of Ivan. Ahmed, khan of the Golden Horde, sends ambassadors demanding homage. Ivan puts the envoys to death, except one, who was to take back the news to his master. The reply of Ahmed to this outrage is a declaration of war. 1479 Ivan issues Sudebnik, or Books of Laws, second Russian code after the Russkaia Pravda of Iaroslav. A comparison of two codes shows how much the Russian character was lowered by Mongol domination; it is in the reign of Ivan that we first hear of the use of the knout. 1480 The Mongols invade Russia. The two armies meet on the banks of the Oka and flee from each other in mutual fear. On his retreat Ahmed is killed and his army is annihilated by the Nogai Tatars.

1482 Cannon is used for first time at the siege of Fellin in Livonia. It was founded by the architect and engineer Aristotle Fioraventi of Bologna, the builder of the Kremlin.

1485 The principality of Tver is annexed to Moscow.

1485 The last prince of Vereya leaves his domains by will to Ivan.

1489 Viatka, a daughter of the city of Novgorod and Pskov, and like them a republic, is annexed.

1489 Poppel comes to Moscow as the first German ambassador.

1491 Mines of Petchora discovered. For first time silver and copper money is coined

at Moscow from produce of Russian mines.

1492-1503 A large part of Little Russia is reconquered from Lithuanians.

1494 Alexander of Lithuania marries Ivan's daughter Helen.

1495 Ivan, considering himself to have been insulted by a Hanseatic city, orders all merchants of all the cities of that union at Novgorod to be put in chains and their property confiscated. This marks the end of Novgorod's commercial greatness.

1499 The princes of Tchernigov and Novgorod-Seversk come over to Moscow.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Russians routed in the battle of the Siritza, near Izborsk, by the grand-master of the Teutonic order, Hermann von Plettenberg.

1503 A treaty is concluded with Lithuania. Moscow retains all her conquests, and Ivan is granted the title of sovereign of all Russia.

1505 Death of Ivan. Vasili, second son of Ivan, succeeds him.

1508 The Russian army is defeated by the revolted people of Kazan. The victors unite with the Tatars of the Crimea, invade Russia and carry their ravages up to the gates of Moscow. Vasili pays a large ransom for the safety of his capital, and signs a treaty by which he engages to become tributary to the khan. Thirty thousand prisoners are carried off by the invaders, and sold at Kaffa to the Turks. 1510 Pskov, last Slavonic republic, annexed.

1514 Smolensk is taken from the Lithuanians after being held by them for 110 years. But in the same year the Lithuanians defeat the Russian force at Orsha, on left bank of the Dnieper. Thirty thousand Russians are said to have fallen in battle. 1521 Riazan and Novgorod-Seversk, the last independent principalities, are annexed. Crimean Tatars devastate the country.

1523 A second expedition against Kazan, consisting of 150,000 men, fails of its object; one of its two divisions is almost annihilated.

1530 Third expedition against Kazan. The city is surprised by night and 60,000 inhabitants are massacred. But the Russian commander, bribed, it is said, by the remaining Kazanians, enters into a treaty of peace with them.

1533 Vasili dies. Regency of his wife, Helena Glinska, 1533-37. Supremacy of the Shuiski, 1537-43. Ivan is under the influence of the Glinski till 1547, when they were torn in pieces by the infuriated Moscow populace. Such was the youth of Ivan the Terrible.

1547 Ivan is crowned and takes the title of Czar.

1550 The Sudebnik of his grandfather Ivan III is revised.

1551 The Stoglav, or Book of the Hundred Chapters, by which the affairs of the church were regulated, is issued.

1552 Kazan, which had freed itself during his father's reign, is annexed,

1553 Chancellor arrives at Archangel and proceeds to Moscow. The English secure great trading privileges and establish factories in the country.

1556 Astrakhan is annexed. The power of the Mongols is now almost completely broken. 1558 Treaty with Elizabeth of England. A Russian army invades Livonia and takes sev eral towns. The Teutonic Order thereupon makes an alliance with Poland. 1564 Ivan, with a few personal friends, retires to Alexandrovskoe, near Moscow, and does not return until after repeated supplications by his nobles. A printing press established at Moscow.

1571 The Mongols of Crimea invade Russia, burn Moscow, drag 100,000 Russians into slavery. Next year they make another raid, but are defeated.

1580 Conquest of Siberia by the Cossack Iermak as far as the Irtish river.

1581 Ivan kills his eldest son in a fit of fury.

1582 Peace of Sapolye. Ivan is forced to surrender to Stephen Bathori (Battori) king of Poland all his conquests in Livonia. The attempt to open for Russia a passage in the Baltic fails for the present.

1584 Death of Ivan. Feodor, his weak-minded son, succeeds Ivan. Boris Godunov, Feodor's brother-in-law, is the real ruler.

1587 A company of Parisian merchants obtains trading privileges. 1590 War with Sweden.

1591 Dmitri, the younger brother of Feodor (Ivan's son by his seventh wife), and the only obstacle to Godunov's ambition, dies at Uglitch. The khan of Crimea makes one of his periodical raids against Moscow, but is repulsed with great slaughter. 1592 Godunov issues a ukase (edict) binding the peasant to the soil, thus reducing him to unmitigated serfdom. As a result, peasants emigrate in large numbers to the Cossacks in order to preserve their freedom.

1597 An edict is issued prescribing the most vigorous measures for the recovery of fugitive serfs.

1598 Death of Feodor, last of the Ruriks. Boris Godunov is elected to succeed him, first by the Council of Boyars (douma) and then by a General Assembly (Sobór).

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1601 A terrible famine, accompanied by pestilence, devastates Russia. Boris causes immense quantities of provisions to be distributed in Moscow, whither multitudes