county convention, the committee is called together by its officers, and a date is set for the holding of the convention. Before this date arrives, a caucus, or a primary, or both, is called in each ward and in each township for the nomination of delegates to the county convention. The number of delegates to which each ward and township is entitled is found by dividing the whole party vote for governor at the last election by a certain number, say thirty, as determined by the county committee. This number is called the ratio of representation. An additional delegate is given when the number left after dividing is greater than one-half of the ratio, and every township or ward is entitled to at least one delegate.

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262. Delegates. A delegate may be defined as an agent chosen by a certain number of voters to represent them at a convention. Just as an agent's power is limited by the instructions of his principal, so the voters who select the delegates may limit their powers by passing proper resolutions. If this be not done, each delegate may exercise his own judgment and vote as he pleases. Quite often, however, all the delegates from a particular township or ward will vote as a unit, as this course will give the delegation more influence. For the nomination of township or precinct officers, the primary is the only meeting necessary; but all the elective officers of the county are nominated in the convention.

263. Alternates and Proxies. It often happens that one or more of the delegates selected does not care to go to the county convention, and some one else fills his place. This substitute is called a proxy. Sometimes each delegate is allowed to appoint his own proxy, but more often

proxies are chosen by the delegation. Occasionally, two sets of delegates are selected, the second being called alternates, to serve in case any of the principal delegates are absent.

TOPICAL ANALYSIS

I. A political party; a platform; a plank.

2. Composition and organization of the county committee. 3. Township and ward politics.

4. A political caucus; derivation of the term.

5. Political clubs; Tammany.

6. Definition of a primary; a slate.

7. Holding a primary.

8. Ratio of representation.

9. Delegates.

10. Proxies and alternates.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. In New England the merits of candidates are discussed in open Is the rule a good one?

caucus.

2. Should delegates be instructed to vote as a unit ?

3. Ought a voter who has attended a caucus always to be bound by its action?

4. What is "repeating"?

5. Look up the derivation of the word "Tammany."

6. What is a "packed" caucus ?

7. Explain the term "ward heeler."

8. Attend a caucus and see how the method of conducting it differs from that described in the text.

9. Why not vote for candidates at the primary and dispense with the convention?

10. Debate the following:

"Resolved that the convention system of nominating candidates should be confined to state and national officers."

XXIII

POLITICAL MACHINERY CONVENTION AND

ELECTION

264. The Convention. At the time and place appointed, the chairman of the county committee calls the convention to order, states the purpose, and asks the further pleasure of the meeting. Sometimes the county committee selects the temporary chairman and secretary; but often the convention chooses even the temporary officers. The next step is the appointment of a committee upon organization and order of business, a second on credentials, and a third on resolutions. Sometimes the committees are appointed by the chairman, and sometimes by a vote of the delegates, the number being determined by the convention.

A short recess is now taken to enable the committees to make up their reports. It sometimes happens that the convention does not wish to take a recess, but will fill in the time by listening to speeches. This affords a really fine opportunity for a good orator to make his mark. His audience is sympathetic, the topic is of his own selection, and if he handles it skilfully, it will make him popular with his party and pave the way for future favors.

265. Committee Reports. After the appointment of the committees they will usually retire to separate rooms to

prepare their reports. The chairmen of the several township, ward, or precinct committees will now hand their credentials to the credential committee for inspection. If they be regular on their face, and there be no contest, the list of delegates upon each set will be accepted. There may, however, be a contesting delegation, in which case the committee will recommend the acceptance of the list which seems best entitled to it.

The committee upon organization and order of business will recommend a plan for conducting a convention substantially as follows:

1. That the temporary officers be made permanent.

2. That the report of the committee upon credentials be next considered.

3. That the convention shall then proceed to vote for the nomination of candidates for the various offices, prescribing the order. If it be a delegate convention, then the recommendation will be to vote upon the list of delegates.

4. Report of the committee upon resolutions.

5. Appointment of new county committee.

6. Adjournment.

266. Real Work of the Convention. When the committees are ready to report, the chairman calls the convention to order, and the report of the committee upon organization and order of business is heard and acted upon. It is generally accepted, but, like any other report, may be amended. The chairman now thanks the convention for the honor conferred upon him, and the business is then transacted according to the plan laid down by the committee. The body of rules which guide the chairman in presiding over the convention is called "Parliamentary

Law." These rules had their origin in the British House of Commons, or Parliament, hence their name. They are essentially the same for all deliberative assemblies, and a good knowledge of, and some practice in, applying them is essential to make a successful presiding officer.

267. Nominations by Petition.-A little experience in the actual workings of the caucus and convention systems of nominating officers will convince one that there are serious objections to it. It requires the expenditure of a large amount of time on the part of the delegates and members of the committee, involves an outlay of considerable money, and, worse than all, offers an opportunity for the use of unfair means to accomplish selfish purposes. To avoid these evils several methods have been tried, that by petition or "nomination papers" being, perhaps, the most satisfactory. This method provides that a candidate may be put in nomination by filing with the proper officer a petition to that effect, signed by a specified number of qualified voters. This number varies in different states. In Iowa there must be at least five hundred for a state office, twenty-five for a county, district, or other division less than a state, and ten in a city, town, precinct, or ward. The nomination papers must be filed with the same officers as in the case of certificates from caucuses, primaries, or conventions. The minimum time limit for filing in the different states is from three to thirty-five days, and the maximum from forty to one hundred days, sixty days being the most common.

268. The Campaign. After the nominations are made, each party puts forth every effort deemed necessary to secure the election of its candidates. At the fall elections,