A distinctive instructor-student relationship in vocational schools naturally influences the form and manner of instruction in such schools. For example, the instructors at many schools engage in "group teaching on an individual basis." This consists of students proceeding at the same pace in the theoretical part of their course and at different rates of progress in the practical or shop training. Students who are deficient in the theory portion of a course are encouraged to seek aid in frequently conducted review classes.

Shop training, on the other hand, is apparently more readily learned and applied although there are differences in performance levels here, too. It is therefore an instructor's responsibility to circulate freely among individuals or small groups of students.

Small classes and individualized instruction make many of the schools an ideal setting for training both students who failed in secondary schools and persons with a variety of handicaps who are referred by a Vocational Rehabilitation Center. Students with varied capacities surely require instructors who are not limited to a fixed lesson plan. In addition, instructors must be able to accommodate students who are at different stages of progress because students can enroll in many of the courses at frequent intervals (i.e., there is no single starting date).

In view of instructor responsbilities, the typical student-teacher ratio for classroom instruction or lectures is small-at least when compared with the ratios found in the introductory subjects of many colleges and universities. About 60 percent of the NATTS members had a ratio of 24 or fewer students per instructor. Of course, the average ratio is still lower in the shop, laboratory, and machine practice. The majority of the schools assigned 19 or fewer students to an instructor at any given time. 12

The student-teacher ratio is also significant since teachers often counsel students. Although not licensed to provide guidance, the instructors have to assume the role of guidance counselors to assist students who have been inadequately counseled or not counseled at all while in high school. This is a direct result of the limited number of high school guidance personnel and their equally limited views on postsecondary vocational education. Consequently, many persons who drop out of school, and even many who graduate from high school, have insufficient knowledge of occupational training opportunities and the labor market. A substantial proportion of students are not thoroughly familiar with the courses provided by private vocational schools, or else they learn about the schools through friends

12 Belitsky, op. cit., pp. 82-83.

attending them, members of their families, newspaper advertisements, or sales representatives of the schools. As a major consequence of these informal lines, many young persons who enroll in the schools are likely to do so with incomplete information on the nature of training, requirements of the occupation they are training for, and the opportunities for advancement.

The counseling continues throughout a course for many students and may involve a fatherly form of encouragement that is not available at home. This includes the provision of extra assistance after class hours to a small group or even to an individual in such subjects as elementary arithmetic and reading.

Since students are the major "consumers" at private vocational schools, it has been in the interest of school administrators and instructors to adjust to student differences in age, educational attainment, ability, and health.

Although the average age of the enrolled students is comparatively young, there have been numerous instances of success in training older persons, both the healthy and those ailing physically or emotionally. The study of NATTS schools disclosed a median age of 20 years for students enrolled in the day sessions; only about 10 percent of the students were 26 or older. The average age of evening students was considerably higher, with nearly two-fifths being 26 or older. Most evening students had been employed full time, and a high percentage of them still found it necessary to work full time during the day while training for a specialty within their occupation, or for a completely different vocation. For both day and evening sessions, the general age range at the NATTS schools during 1965 to 1967 was 17 to 48 years; but some schools even had students who were in their sixties.

Although enrollees in the trade and technical schools are predominantly men, several schools do provide considerable training opportunities for women in such courses as medical and dental assisting, commercial art, and

13It is not known to what extent Negroes and disadvantaged members of other minorities have been enrolled in private vocational schools. Probably most of the Negroes enjoying such opportunities receive financial aid under programs of the Veterans Administration, Vocational Rehabilitation agencies, the Manpower Development and Training Act, and other government agencies. However, in some nonprofit schools, notably the Opportunities Industrialization Center (OIC), Negroes have been the principal beneficiaries. The OIC was organized in Philadelphia, but several of the training centers have been established recently in other cities.

hotel-motel management. The women naturally account for the large najority of students enrolled in business and cosmetology schools.

Flexibility of the schools in accommodating students of varied backgrounds and needs is particularly evident with regard to educational preparation. Student bodies include:

1. High school dropouts with no occupational training.

2. High school graduates of a general education program who
lack any specific preparation for employment.

3.

4.

High school graduates who fail to pass the private schools'
aptitude tests in algebra or even arithmetic.

Persons preparing for a licensable occupation.

5. College dropouts, or even college students and graduates,
desiring an otherwise unavailable course, such as computer
programming.

6.

Persons for whom the formal education requirement is eased
because they have had several years of employment
experience but are currently unemployed or finding it
difficult, for physical reasons, to remain in their present
occupations.

Besides taking account of their students' educational preparation, school administrators adjust the scheduling of courses to the requirements of students. For some courses, new students are enrolled as often as once each week. The majority of schools have four new classes annually, but they may accept students on a monthly basis. Students can also attend either day or evening sessions, and they can choose to attend on a full- or part-time basis. Courses given by members of NATTS ranged from one-half week to 130 weeks. The median for these courses was 40 weeks. Most courses require twice as long when taken on a part-time basis. The option of enrolling in a course on either a full-time or part-time basis and the great variations course length afford considerable flexibility to students. Finally, practically all trade and technical schools operate at least 48 weeks annually, permitting the ambitious student to complete the already compact course most expeditiously.

After a typical student is enrolled in a private school, his major challenge is having adequate funds to finance all expenses during the period of education. Although empirical data are unavailable, it is likely that students are predominantly from middle-income families where the father is not

employed in a professional or managerial position. Only a small minority of students attending trade and technical schools can rely upon their parents or personal savings to pay for their entire schooling. For example, more than two-thirds of the students enrolled at a large technical school, which has been granted recognition for transfer of credits to several colleges and universities, are compelled to work on a part- or full-time basis.14 The school owners' practice of accepting deferred payments is a useful, albeit limited, form of financial assistance that is available in most schools. Under this practice, students may elect to pay their tuition in installments throughout the year rather than in one or two lump-sum payments.

Despite financial pressures, the student dropout rate is only approximately 20 percent in these schools-lower than the dropout rate in most high schools and colleges. This is at least partially due to student selection of courses which satisfy individual vocational interests. Financial problems are the major reasons for student failure to complete courses. The next most important reasons cited-the presence of family problems and securing a full-time job-also suggest the presence of financial difficulties for at least some of the students. School owners report that only a minor percentage of students fail to complete their courses due to lack of ability.

Prospects for Private Vocational Schools

Private vocational schools are likely to experience a consistent growth in enrollments and greater general acceptance as an important training resource for persons who do not attend college. Moreover, the congressional recommendation for use of the schools under provisions of the Vocational Education Act could lead to joint ventures with public high schools.

The types of courses offered in these highly flexible schools will be a function of at least four factors. In the first place, the schools will continue to adapt to those areas of the economy undergoing expansion and innovation. For example, the schools were among the first to offer courses in the allied health fields, computer programming, and commercial flying. Second, and especially within a specific community, the private schools will offer those courses that are either not taught in the public schools or else are unavailable in sufficient number to meet the desires of students. The third factor is the extent to which public schools, and even colleges throughout the country, will decide to subcontract with the private schools for those vocational education courses which they cannot provide for their students. A fourth factor is both the increased corporate subcontracting of training with the

14 Belitsky, op. cit., p. 106.

schools plus the significant expansion in corporate purchase and operation of the schools. This factor is also likely to have an independent influence upon the general growth of the schools.

The types of courses offered and the educational requirements for admission determine, to a great extent, the nature of the student bodies in the schools. In all probability, the students' average level of formal education has risen faster than the average educational requirement for admission to the schools during recent years. This conclusion is based on the author's study comparing admission requirements with actual qualifications of students. The greater educational preparation of most : students could lead more schools to raise the level of sophistication in many of their occupational training courses.15

On the other hand, since most trade and technical schools have unused capacity and an interest in enrolling more students, their programs might be broadened to accommodate the large number of people who need initial training, upgrading, or retraining. This would involve accepting more persons with lower educational attainment. The author recommends a government loan-grant program as an equitable means for enabling these persons to attend private vocational schools.

Toward Equality of Educational Opportunity 16

It would be operationally desirable to have a government loan- grant program for all persons seeking employment-related training in private vocational schools. There is, however, a more important reason for universalizing the program-namely, an impressive growth in social concern for and commitment to "free public education."

The goal of equality of educational opportunity must naturally also provide more persons in low-income families the option of securing a college education. Nevertheless, equality (or, more accurately, equity) will not be achieved by placing an exaggerated emphasis upon college preparatory programs in high school. Many students simply lack either the interest or the ability to attend a college or even a junior college. Also, a community college, public technical institute, or area vocational school may not always

15Only a minority of trade and technical schools have thus far applied to colleges and actually received partial transfer credits for students desiring to attend college. Business schools may possibly have been more active in this regard.

16 Belitsky, op. cit., pp. 144-150, for a more detailed discussion.