utterances already existed, and it was from these that Zaid prepared an authoritative compilation to be known henceforth as the Koran. This volume passed, after the death of Abu-bekr, into the hands of Omar, and by Omar was intrusted to the keeping of Hafsa, one of the Prophet's wives, the daughter of Omar. Differences of opinion in regard to the text of the Koran still prevailed after Zaid's edition was completed, and accordingly a second redaction was instituted in the thirtieth year of the Hejira by Caliph Othman, not for the sake of arranging and correcting the text, but in order to insure unity. This work was intrusted to four editors of recognized authority, of whom Zaid was one. With respect to the succession of the single chapters, 114 in number, no attempt was made at establishing continuity, but they were placed side by side according to their respective lengths; so that immediately after the introductory exordium follows the longest chapter, and the others are ranged after it in decreasing size, though this principle is not strictly adhered to. They are not numbered in the manuscripts, but bear distinctive, often strange-sounding, headings; as: the Cow, Congealed Blood, the Fig, the Star, the Towers, Saba, the Poets, etc., taken from a particular matter or person treated of in the respective chapters. Every chapter or sura begins with the introductory formula, "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate." It is further stated at the beginning whether the sura was revealed at Mecca or at Medina. Every chapter is subdivided into smaller portions (Ayah, Heb. Oth, sign, letter), varying in the ancient copies (of Medina, Cufa, Basra, and Damascus, and the 'vulgar edition') between 6000 and 6036. The number of words in the whole book is 77,639, and an enumeration of the letters shows an amount of 323,015 of these. Other (encyclical) divisions of the book are into 30 ajza and into 60 ahzab, for the use of devotional readings in and out of the mosque. Twenty-nine suras commence with certain letters of the alphabet, which are supposed by Mohammedans to be of mystic import, but which are probably monograms of private collectors or authorities.

The contents of the Koran as the basis of Mohammedanism will be considered under that head,

while for questions more closely connected with authorship and chronology, consult MOHAMMED. Briefly it may be stated here that the chief doctrine laid down in it is the unity of God, and the existence of but one true religion, with changeable ceremonies. As teachers and warners of mankind, God, at different times, sent prophets to lead back to truth, Moses, Christ, and Mohammed being the most distinguished. Both punishments for the sinner and rewards for the pious are depicted with great diffuseness, and exemplified chiefly by stories taken from the Bible, the apocryphal writings, the Midrash, and pre-Islamic history. Special laws and directions, admonitions to moral and divine virtues, more particularly to a complete and unconditional resignation to God's will (see ISLAM), legends, principally relating to the patriarchs, and, almost without exception, borrowed from the Jewish writings (known to Mohammed by oral communication only, a circumstance which accounts for their frequent odd confusion), form the bulk of the book, which throughout bears the most palpable traces of Jewish influence. Thus, of ideas and

words taken bodily, with their Arabicized designations, from Judaism, may be mentioned: Kur'ān=mikra (reading); furkān (salvation); the introductory formula, bismillah (in the name of God); taurāt=tōrah (book of law); jinnah gan ēden (paradise); jahinnam (hell); darasa darash (to search the scriptures); subāt, sabt =shabbath (day of rest); sakinah (majesty of God). It is especially in the later suras that Mohammed, for the edification of his hearers, introduced (in imitation of Jewish and Christian preachers) stories and legends of biblical personages.

The suras may be divided into three general classes: those delivered during the first years of Mohammed's preaching in Mecca, those delivered during the latter part of his stay in that city, and those delivered in Medina. In the oldest suras Mohammed is concerned mainly with depicting the power and unity of God, with the resurrection and the judgment day, with depicting the blessedness of paradise and the tortures of hell. These subjects are elaborated in the suras of the middle and last period. While in the earlier ones Mohammed claims to be only a preacher sent to warn people, in the later ones he steps forward boldly with the claim of being a divinely sent prophet, whose utterances represent revelations made to him by the angel Gabriel. The duties obligatory upon Moslems are all discussed in the later suras, though the formation into codes was reserved for the Mohammedan theologians. Incidentally his polemics against his personal enemies, and especially against Judaism and Christianity, are introduced into the Koran, the Jews being accused of falsitying the Scriptures, the Christians of running counter to the doctrine of the unity of God by the assumption that Jesus was a son of God. The discourses themselves are of a rambling nature, and numerous social customs are touched upon. In this way the Koran becomes a mirror in which Mohammed's personality is reflected with a clearness which leaves little to be desired. It properly was taken as the basis for the elaboration of a Mohammedan system of theology, for there is scarcely any topic connected with the law upon which it does not touch, though never exhaustively. Its lack of system, and its discursiveness, make the Koran hard reading, but its interest and value to the student are all the greater because of the assurance these very defects give us that we have in the Koran a work that is in all essential particulars authentic.

The general tendency and aim of the Koran is found clearly indicated in the beginning of the second chapter: "This is the book in which there is no doubt; a guidance for the pious, who believe in the mysteries of faith, who perform their prayers, give alms from what we have bestowed upon them, who believe in the revelation which we made unto thee, which was sent down to the prophets before thee, and who believe in the future life," etc. To unite the three principal religious forms which he found in his time and country-viz. Judaism, Christianity, and heathenism-into one, was Mohammed's ideal; and the Koran, properly read, discloses constantly the alternate flatteries and threats aimed at each of the three parties. No less are certain abrogations of special passages in the Koran, made by the Prophet himself due to the vacillat

ing relation in which he at first stood to the different creeds.

The language of the Koran has become the ideal of classical Arabic, and no human pen is supposed to be capable of producing anything similar: a circumstance adduced by Mohammed himself, as a clear proof of his mission. The style varies considerably; in the earlier suras concise and bold, sublime and majestic, impassioned, fluent, and harmonious; in the later ones verbose, sententious, obscure, tame, and prosy. There are passages of great beauty and power suggesting the Hebrew prophets. By means of the difference in style between the earlier and later suras modern investigators have endeavored to form a chronological arrangement. A general consensus has now been arrived at; though questions of detail must always remain in dispute, as many of the suras are composite in character. A great deal depends also upon internal evidence, which fortunately is found in considerable abundance. Mohammed, especially in the later years of his career, was in the habit of introducing allusions to events of the day, to disputations with Jews and Christians, to his ambitions and aims, into his discourses; and since, in addition to the Koran, we have the copious collections known as Hadith (q.v.) containing utterances, sayings and doings, and decisions of Mohammed at the various periods of his career, it is in many cases possible to attach utterances in the Koran to specific occasions, and thus fix the age of the sura in which a certain expression or opinion occurs. The Koran is written in prose, yet the two or more links of which a sentence is generally composed sometimes rhyme with each other, a peculiarity of speech (called saj') used by the ancient soothsayers (kuhhān-kōhen) of Arabia: only that Mohammed used his own discretion in remodeling its form and freeing it from conventional fetters; and thus the rhyme of the Koran became an entirely distinctive rhyme. Refrains are introduced in some suras, and plays upon words are not disdained.

(ed. Basel, 1543). The principal translations are those of Maracci, into Latin (1698); Sale (1st ed. 1734, one of the best translations in any language, edited by Wherry with additional matter, 1881-86), Rodwell (2d ed., 1876), and Palmer (1880), into English; Savary (1783), Garcin de Tassy (1829), Kazimirski (1840), into French; Megerlin (1772), Wahl (1828), Ullmann (1840), Grigull (1901), and Henning in the Reclam Universal-Bibliothek, into German; Reckendorf into Hebrew (1857); besides a great number of Persian, Turkish, Malay, Hindustani, and other translations made for the benefit of the various Eastern Mohammedans. The attempt to reproduce the style and rhyme of the original was first made by J. von Hammer (1811); this was improved upon by A. Sprenger (1861-65), Fr. Rückert (1888), and by M. Klamroth (1890). All of these are in German. The Speeches and Table-Talk of the Prophet Mohammed, chosen and translated by Stanley Lane-Poole (London, 1882), is a selection from the best that is in the Koran. Of concordances to the Koran may be mentioned that of Flügel (Leipzig, 1842), and the Nojon-olForkan (Calcutta, 1811); La Beaume, Le Koran analysé (Paris, 1878), is a topical index to the French translations of Kazimirski and others. There are Koran lexicons by Dieterici (2d ed., Berlin, 1894) and Penrice (London, 1873). The introduction and notes to Sale's translation contain material that is still of value, though in large measure superseded now by Nöldeke, Geschichte des Korans (Göttingen, 1860); Weil, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in den Koran (Bielefeld, 1844); Grimme, Mohammed, 2ter Theil; Einleitung in den Koran; System der koranischen Theologie (1895); Hirschfeld, New Researches into the Composition and Exegesis of the Koran (Eng. trans. London, 1902). Consult also the lives of Mohammed and other works mentioned in the articles MOHAMMED and Mo

HAMMEDANISM.

KORAT, kō-rät'. A town of Siam, situated 165 miles by rail northeast of Bangkok, the capital (Map: Siam, D 4). It is surrounded by a strong stone wall, and in its vicinity are several copper-mines and sugar plantations. Korat is the seat of a Siamese Governor, and has a population of about 7000, consisting of Burmese and natives of Laos and China.

The Koran has been commented upon so often that the names of the commentators alone would fill pages. The most renowned are those of Zamakhshari (died A.H. 539), Beidhawi (died A.H. 685 or 716), Mahalli (died A.H. 870), and Suyuti (died A.H. 911). The principal editions are those of Hinkelmann (Hamburg, 1694); Maracci (Padua, 1698); Flügel (Leipzig, 1883); besides many editions (of small critical value) printed in Saint Petersburg, Kazan, Teheran, Calcutta, Cawnpore, and Serampore, and by the many newly erected Indian presses. There is a chrestomathy with notes and vocabulary by Nallino (Leipzig, 1893). The first, but very imperfect, Latin version of the Koran was made by Robertus Retensis, an Englishman, in 1143

KORBAY, kôr bŏ-I, FRANCIS ALEXANDER (1846

poser. He was born at Pesth, in Hungary, and settled in New York as a teacher of singing and pianoforte in 1871. He was a pupil of Roger for the voice, and of Liszt for the piano, and for three years (1865-68) sang at the Hungarian Opera of Pesth. Subsequently he toured successfully throughout Germany, England, and America as a piano virtuoso. His compositions, which include Nuptiale, for orchestra; Le matin, arranged for voice and piano (but afterwards arranged for the orchestra); and numerous Hungarian folk-songs and musical transcriptions generally, are held in high repute.

KORDOFAN, kôr'dô-fän'. A province of the Egyptian Sudan (q.v.), situated between the White Nile and the Province of Darfur, and extending from longitude 28° 30′ to 33° E., and from about latitude 11° to 16° N. Its area is estimated at about 95,000 square miles. The surface is flat, with a few isolated hills. During the

dry season it is mostly barren; but with the advent of the rainy season, which usually lasts from June to October, it is covered with a rich vegetation. There are no rivers, but wells are abundant, and generally serve both as centres for permanent settlements and as temporary camps for the nomadic tribes. The principal products are sesame, groundnuts, cotton, tobacco, and a kind of millet. The chief products of commerce are ostrich-feathers and gum. The population is estimated at about 300,000, chiefly Arabs and Berbers, who profess Islam. There are also several pagan negro tribes in the southern part. About one-half of the population is nomadic. Capital, El-Obeid (q.v.).

KOREA, or COREA, kō-rē'à (Korean Kori, Korye, or Koryu, the local pronunciation of Kao-li, the Chinese name of that one of the three kingdoms of the peninsula which became paramount toward the end of the tenth century). A country of Eastern Asia, mostly in peninsular form, and lying south and southeast of Manchuria, and dividing the Sea of Japan from the Yellow Sea. It is bounded on the south by the Strait of Korea, on the north by the Yalu-Kiang, which rises in the Shanalin Mountains of Man

churia and flows southwest into the Yellow Sea, and by the Tuman, which rises near the same place and flows northeast and east into the Sea of Japan. It lies between the parallels 340 17 and 430 N., and between the meridians 124° 38' and 130° 33′ E. Korea is about 600 miles in length, 135 miles in breadth, and has an area variously estimated at from 80,000 to 92,000 square

miles.

From about A.D. 960 the name of the country was Kori, or Kory. In 1392, when the present dynasty was founded by one Li Tan, a still older name, Chō-sen, or Choson (Chinese Chao-sien, 'morning freshness'), was revived. Since 1897 Dai Han has been the official name.

TOPOGRAPHY. The northern half of the coun

try is very mountainous and well wooded, with peaks from 4000 to more than 8000 feet in height. The main axis of elevation, which forms the great backbone of the peninsula, lies along the whole eastern seaboard. The southern half is somewhat monotonous, the ridges and spurs thrown out by the main axis dwindling in height as they approach the western and southern coasts. Near latitude 37° a long chain runs southwest, ending in Hanra-san, an extinct volcano (6700 feet) on the island of Quelpaert. From the main axis the surface falls off abruptly to the east. Toward the west the hills are almost destitute of trees.

and are scarred with gullies which open out into wide, monotonous, but fertile plains.

Owing to the narrowness of the country, there are no great rivers. The most important are (1) the Amnok (or Apnok), better known as the Yalu-Kiang, which rises in the Paik-tu-san, or 'White Head Mountain,' an extinct volcano 8900 feet in height, in latitude 41° 59' N., and flows southwest into the Yellow Sea, forming in its course the northwest boundary of the country. It is navigable by sea-going junks for 30 miles from its mouth, and by boats as far as Wi-wön, 145 miles more. (2) The Tai-dong, in Phyöng-an Province, which is navigable by boats for 75 miles, as far as the important city of Ping-yang (40,000 inhabitants). (3) The Han, on which the capital is situated, rises at a point only 30

miles from the Sea of Japan and flows westward to the Yellow Sea. A fleet of smail steamers plies on it between Chemulpo, at its mouth, and the capital (55 or 60 miles), and boats ascend some 80 or 90 miles farther. (4) The Nak-tong, which flows from north to south through the provinces of Kyeng-Syeng, and empties into the Korean Strait near Fusan (q.v.). It is navigable for 140 miles by vessels drawing not more than 42 feet. (5) The Mok-p'o is a small river which flows through the fertile Province of Chulla, and enters the sea at the open port of the same name in latitude 34° 47′ N. and longitude 126° 15′ E. The only Korean river which flows into the Sea of Japan is the Tuman. The coast-line measures 1740 miles. On the east the shores are steep and almost unbroken by estuaries or harbors. Gen-san and Port Lazareff are the best, not only ands on the east coast, but on the west and south on this coast, but in Korea. There are few islthe largest of which are Quelpaert, off the south the coasts are fringed with innumerable clusters, coast, and Kang-hwa, in the mouth of the Han River. The best harbor on the south coast is east coasts the tides seldom rise more than a that of Fusan (or in Korean Pu-san). On the strong and dangerous, rising frequently to 35 few feet, but on the west and south they are feet, and receding with great rapidity, leaving great mud banks on which vessels are sometimes left high and dry.

CLIMATE. On the whole the climate of Korea is salubrious. It greatly resembles that of the opposite coast of China. This is especially true of the central and northern parts, where the Snow covers the country from the middle of winters are severe and the rivers freeze over. December until the end of February. In the south the skies are generally bright, and the early winter is as delightful as in Japan. The middle and late summer is rainy and hot. The temperature ranges from 5° F. in winter to 75° F. The average annual rainfall is 36 inches; 90° F. in July, with a summer average of about the average of the rainy season (June to September) 22 inches. In 1898 it was 25% inches, while in 1901 it was only 4.1 inches, resulting in a famine.

FLORA. The flora is not extensive, nor is it brilliant in color. Azaleas, rhododendrons, clewhere. Much timber is grown in the northern matis, and Ampelopsis Veitchii are found everymountains, and there is a large lumbering industry. There are several species of pine, fir, oak, and maple. The lime, ash, birch, mountain ash, dryandra (or wood-oil tree), willow, hornbeam,

and bamboo are common to Korea, Manchuria, and North China, and the Broussonettia papyri fera, or 'paper mulberry,' is much cultivated. The fruits include the plum, peach, apple, pear, etc., of the Chinese varieties. Ginseng (Aralia quinquefolia) is a Government monopoly, and large fields of it are grown.

FAUNA. The animals include the tiger, leopard, bear, antelope, and several species of deer, fox, badger, tiger-cat, squirrel, beaver, otter, marten. and sable; the wolf appears to be wanting. Among birds are the black eagle, peregrine, hawk, kite, egret, crane, kestrel, the white and the pin ibis, heron, crow, magpie, kingfisher, woodlark, oriole, thrush, and cuckoo, pheasant, goose, teal, mallard, mandarin duck, and turkey buz