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some taxation. The indirect taxes include excise, customs, and octroi duties. To these should be added the revenues derived from the tobacco, salt, quinine, and lottery monopolies. These taxes and revenues altogether yield more than forty per cent. of the total revenue. The direct taxes, including a land, an income, and a house tax, furnish about 28 per cent. of the total revenue. The inheritance tax, registration and stamp duties bring in about thirteen per cent. more. The remainder (19 per cent.) is obtained from incomes from all kinds of public property and Government works, such as public domains, railways, telegraphs, posts, etc.

The largest item of expenditure is the interest on the public debt-nearly $140,000,000 per annum, or 422 per cent. of the total ordinary expenditure. The next largest item is the army and navy, which exceeded $76,600,000 in 1902 (or 23% per cent. of the total expenditure). By contrast the expenditure on public instruction during the same year was $9,600,000 (or less than 3 per cent.), and on agriculture, industry, and commerce combined, but $2,000,000 (or about one-half of one per cent.). Since 1885 the revenue and expenditure of the Government have remained practically the same, as is shown by the following table of the budget since the existence of the Kingdom in its present limits:

YEAR

1871

1881

1885-86

1891-92

1895-96

1899-1900

1901-02

ered indispensable. In 1899 the revenue of the communes of Italy amounted to $128,401,829, while that of the provinces was $26,335,265. The largest items in the communal revenue are (1) the gate tax or octroi, which is partly a duty on certain articles not otherwise taxed, and partly a surtax not to exceed 50 per cent. of that levied upon certain commodities at the frontier; and (2) a surtax upon lands and buildings, also limited to a maximum of 50 per cent. of that levied by the State. Of less importance are the levies made upon family incomes, live stock, etc. The bulk of the provincial tax is secured from a surtax upon land and buildings, which is likewise limited to 50 per cent. of the State assessment. The expenditure and indebtedness of both the communes and the provinces have greatly increased during the last two decades.

As an illustration of the immense tax burden in Italy may be cited the land tax, which altogether, national, provincial, and communal, amounts to nearly one-fourth of the land-owner's revenue. Under the cadastral survey which served as the basis of the land assessment prior to 1886, the burden of this tax fell with great inequality upon different parts of the country. But a law passed in 1886 authorized a new survey, which was quickly made in the provinces which were unjustly burdened, thereby securing a measure of relief. But the provinces which Expenditure Surplus (+) would not profit by the survey have been slow to or deficit (-) make it (in some provinces the increase amounted to over 90 per cent.). Hence the revenue yielded $249,847,591 $241,243.022 +$8,604,568 303,707,093 293,529,645 +10,177,447 by the land was lessened in consequence of the 349,103,182 346,119,667 +2,983,515 law. The income tax, which is proportional, does 349,590,318 359,218,079 9,627,761 not apply to incomes obtained from the land, but 367,950,702 326,629 349,585.629 only upon those from movable capital and from 362,384,902 labor.

Revenue

368,277,331

348,543,552
358,191,956

1,042,097
4,192,946

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ture army &

public

Total expendi

debt

ture

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Debt

Interest

$1,663,744,800

$77,682,800

1.966,627,800

87.035,600

1871.

1881.

1891-92.

1895-96.

1901-02.

*Millions of dollars.

293
359
368
358

It will be observed that the expenditure for military purposes decreased since 1896, due to the defeat of the troops in Africa and the consequent contraction of military operations. But the increase of expenditure on that item in the twenty-five-year period from 1871 to 1896 was 162 per cent., while the increase in the total expenditure was kept down to 53 per cent., to the detriment of such vital interests as public institutions, sanitation, industry, agriculture, commerce, etc. The interest on the public debt amounts to about two-fifths of the total expenditure.

LOCAL FINANCES. In both commune and province, expenditure is classified as 'obligatory' and 'optional,' the former including the maintenance of roads, education, police, and matters consid

2,413,513,400 111,468,600 2,529,057,800

115,967,000

(The seeming discrepancy between the interest figures in the above table and the one preceding is due to the fact that the one gives the interest charges only, while the other gives the total service of the debt, which includes amortization.) The table shows that the debt increased more than fifty per cent. within thirty years, making it the fourth largest public debt in the world. It is next to that of France, of Great Britain, and of Russia, all of which countries have far greater resources than Italy. In fact the per capita debt of Italy, $81.10 in 1900, is greater than that of any of the countries mentioned except France, where it was $150.60 during the same year. It is, however, less than in some countries, for instance Spain, where the figure is $95.50; Portugal, $143.80; Argentina, $129; Netherlands, $90.70.

DEFENSE. The often repeated invasion of Italy from the north has shown that the Alps cannot be depended upon as a protection against invasion. To guard against the possibilities of invasion, a large number of fortifications have been established in the northern part of Italy. In the first line of fortifications there are four groups which guard the French frontier, namely, the

Cuneo group, the Ligurian group, the Northern Turin group, and the Dora Baltea group. Fortifications are being constructed to defend the Switzerland frontier, as, for instance, a large fort at Varzo in the valley of the Vedra. Numerous small fortifications defend the valleys which lead into Austria.

The second line of fortifications includes Alessandria, Casale, Genoa, Piacenza, Verona, Peschiera, Mantua, and Venice. There are but few strongly fortified points in the interior of the peninsula, the principal ones being Bologna, Aulla, Grosseto, Capua, and Rome. The coast for tifications, in addition to Genoa and Venice, are: on the east Ancona; on the south Taranto; on the west Gaeta, Civitavecchia, Spezia, and Genoa; Messina on the island of Sicily; Maddalena in Sardinia; and Portoferrajo and Porte Longone on the island of Elba. For a description of the army and navy forces, see ARMIES; NAVIES. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of Italy is based on the Statuto granted by Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, to his subjects in 1848. When Sardinia expanded into the Kingdom of Italy, its Constitution was taken over as the fundamental law of the new State. Curiously enough, it contains no provision for amendment and has never been formally changed. Many of its provisions have, however, been indirectly changed by custom, and even by decree of the King, and it seems now to be settled that the power of amendment without limit belongs to the King and Parliament. The Constitution provides with much more detail than that of France for the organization of the Government, and contains a bill of rights intended chiefly to serve as a limitation upon the powers of the King. The Constitution vests the executive power in a King who is hereditary in the House of Savoy, according to the principle of agnatic lineal succession. The sovereign attains his majority at eighteen years of age, and his person is inviolable. He is the supreme head of the State, commander of the army and navy, declares war, negotiates all treaties. But treaties which impose financial burdens upon the State, or which alienate the national territory, must be approved by the Chambers. The King appoints all officers; issues decrees and ordinances for the execution of the laws under the limitation that he cannot suspend or dispense with existing laws; he sanctions and promulgates the laws; may veto absolutely any project of law; and finally has the power to grant pardons and commutations of penalties. While the Constitution confers these powers upon the King, it provides that no official act of his shall be valid unless countersigned by a Minister who thereby assumes the responsibility for the same. The responsibility of the Ministers is to the Lower House of Parliament. They are appointed by the King, and may or may not be members of Parliament. Whether members or not, they are entitled to seats in either Chamber, but may vote only in the Chamber of which they are members. In Parliament, the Ministers take the lead in the debates. They initiate the measures of the Government, and, in fact, all the more important bills, and seek to have them enacted into law. They also defend the policy of the Government against attack from the opposition, but when an important measure which they have advocated is voted down by the Chamber, or when a resolu

tion expressing lack of confidence in the Ministry is adopted, they either resign or request the King to dissolve the Chamber and order a new election, in the hope that the people will sustain their policy and elect representatives who will support them. In addition to their duties in Parliament, the Ministers have charge of the several administrative departments. At present there are eleven of these, viz.: The Interior, Foreign Affairs, the Treasury, Finance, Justice and Religion, War, Marine, Commerce and Industry and Agriculture, Public Instruction, Posts and Telegraphs, and Public Works.

The Constitution vests the legislative power in a Senate and Chamber of Deputies with substantial equality of powers in legislation, except that revenue measures must originate in the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of princes of the royal blood who have attained their majority, and of an unlimited number of members who have attained the age of forty years, appointed by the King for life from certain classes designated by the Constitution. These classes are the archbishops and bishops; members of the Royal Academy of seven years' standing; Deputies who have served three terms of five years; certain high civil and military functionaries, such as Cabinet Ministers, ambassadors, councilors, judges, generals, admirals, etc.; citizens who pay over 3000 lire in taxes; and citizens illustrious on account of service to the State or for distinction in science, literature, or art. At present there are about 340 Senators, nearly two-thirds of whom belong to the class of ex-Deputies and large taxpayers.

The Chamber of Deputies is composed of 508 members chosen by citizens over twenty-one years of age who can read and write, and who have passed an examination in the elementary branches of the school curriculum. The examination, however, is not required of professional men, members of academies, college graduates, those who pay a direct tax of not less than nineteen and four-fifths lire (about four dollars), and those who pay annual rents of a certain amount. Persons actively enlisted in the military or naval service are not permitted to vote. Since 1891 the members have been chosen by districts and on single ticket. The only qualification for membership in the Chamber of Deputies is the attainment of the age of twenty-five years. Disqualified, however, are priests in active service, and all officials in the pay of the Government, with a few exceptions. Army and navy officers, ministers, and certain other high functionaries to the number of forty are eligible. The tenure of the Deputies is five years, unless the Chamber is dissolved. Neither Senators nor Depu ties receive compensation for their services, but are allowed free passes over the railroads of Italy.

The powers and privileges of the two Chambers are substantially the same, except that the Senate is a court for the trial of Ministers who are impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, for the trial of cases of treason and attempts against the safety of the State, and for the trial of its own members. Senators and Deputies are privileged from arrest unless with the consent of their respective Chambers, except in case of flagrant crime, and enjoy absolute freedom of speech while in the discharge of their duties. The Senate elects its minor officers, but its president and vice-president are appointed by the King; the

Chamber of Deputies elects all of its officers, and both Houses are the judges of the election and qualifications of their members. The King may dissolve the Chamber of Deputies at any time, but he must order new elections and summon the new Chamber within four months. Dissolution of the Chamber has the effect of proroguing the Senate. The sessions of both Chambers begin and end at the same time, and must be public. A quorum is an absolute majority of the members; every project of law must be referred to one of the bureaus of the Chamber in which it originated, and must receive the approval of both Chambers and the King before it becomes law.

The administrative system, both central and local, is fashioned largely after that of France. Historical subdivisions have been replaced by artificial areas, and local self-government is superseded by a centralized administration. The power of the higher administrative officials to issue ordinances for the purpose of supplementing the statutes has been carried even further than in France, and in many cases has the effect of suspending or displacing the statutes. An organ of restraint upon the action of the Government in this respect is found in the Council of State and the several Courts of Accounts. The former is chiefly an advisory organ, but it also has power to prevent arbitrary action of the central Government in the removal of local officials; the Courts of Accounts exercise supervision over various activities of the administration, and their approval is necessary to the validity of all decrees and orders which involve the expenditure of more than 2000 lire. The seat of government of Italy is Rome. From 1865 to 1871 the capital was Florence, which had superseded Turin.

For the purpose of local government Italy is divided into artificial circumscriptions called provinces, circondari, mandamenti, and communes. The chief executive officer in each province is the prefect, appointed by the King, and under the control of the Minister of the Interior. He is therefore the agent of the central Government, and in this as in other respects corresponds to his French prototype. He is charged with the publication and execution of the laws; takes measures for the public safety; disposes of the armed forces; issues police ordinances; and supervises and directs the subordinate officials of the province. To advise and assist him in the discharge of his duties a prefectural council over which he presides is provided. The deliberative as sembly of the province is the Provincial Council, chosen for five years by an electorate which is somewhat restricted, but which has been extended. The size of the Council varies according to the population of the province. It meets at the capital of the province once a year; it elects its own officers; and all resident taxpayers are eligible to its membership. Its sessions are opened by the prefect, who has the right to preside over them and to suspend them for a limited period. It has a wide power of local legislation relating to such matters as the creation of highways, establishment of societies, public institutions, the care of provincial property, schools, poor relief, the budget, loans, besides a supervisory authority over the civil service. There is also in each province a provincial deputation elected by the Provincial Council and presided over by the prefect. It represents the Council during its recess, superintends the enforcement of its resolu

tions, prepares the budget, exercises a disciplinary control over inferior officers, and performs a variety of local duties under the direction of the Council.

The circondario plays an unimportant part in the local administration. Its chief officer is an under-prefect, who represents the central power. The mandamento is a judicial district for the pretor, and, like the circondario, is of little consequence as an administrative area.

The commune is the lowest administrative unit, and, like the province, has its own elected council. The chief executive officer in the commune is the syndic or mayor. By a recent law the syndics of all the communes, irrespective of their population, are chosen by the Communal Councils from their own membership. The functions of the syndic are twofold: he is the local municipal magistrate, and at the same time the agent of the central Government in the commune. As mayor he presides over the Council, executes its ordinances, is the custodian of communal property and institutions, and takes measures for the public health and safety. As agent of the central Government he publishes and executes the national laws and ordinances, and performs various duties which relate to matters of central concern. The Communal Council is chosen by the same electorate as that which selects the Provincial Council and for the same term. It meets ordinarily twice a year, and is presided over by the syndic. It is subject to central control, and may be dissolved by the King. Its duties include a large control over the communal civil service, the care and management of communal property and institutions, and the administration of a large number of purely local matters. In each commune is also an organ known as the municipal junta, composed of the syndic and a number of assessors elected by the Communal Council. It corresponds to the deputation in the province, i.e. it conducts the affairs of the commune when the Council is not in session.

The judicial system of Italy, like the administrative system, is modeled largely on that of France. The lowest judicial functionaries are the consigliatori, one of whom is appointed by the King for each commune. He serves for three years and without pay. His jurisdiction extends to civil actions in which only a small amount is involved. Above this officer is the pretor, whose territorial jurisdiction is the mandamento, a district comprising several communes. His competence in civil matters extends, among others, to all actions in which the amount involved does not exceed 1500 lire, and he has an appellate jurisdiction over the decisions of the consigliatore. In criminal matters his jurisdiction extends to all misdemeanors and crimes punishable by imprisonment for a period not exceeding three months, or banishment not exceeding one year, or by fine not exceeding $200. Above the Court of the Pretor is the Civil and Correctional Tribunal, which is divided into chambers, one of which sits in each of the most important cities of Italy. Its jurisdiction in civil matters extends to appeals from the decisions of the pretor and to those civil actions for which neither the pretor nor the consigliatore is competent. Together with a number of men prominent in trade and commerce, it sits as a court for the adjudication of commercial disputes. It is also a criminal

court for offenses not cognizable by the pretor, and has appellate jurisdiction over appeals from the decisions of the pretor.

one or more

There are twenty courts of appeal in Italy, each of which is divided into chambers. Their appellate jurisdiction extends to decisions of the civil and correctional tribunals. In each appellate court district there are courts of assize, composed of a judge of the Court of Appeal and two assessors, and generally a jury of fourteen men. The criminal jurisdiction of the Court of Assize extends to crimes punishable by imprisonment for a long period of time, to offenses against the security of the State, and to press offenses.

The highest judicial tribunals in Italy are the courts of cassation, of which there are five, one at Florence, one at Naples, one at Palermo, one at Turin, and one at Rome. Each is composed of a first president, several presidents of sections, and from eight to sixteen judges. Each is divided into two chambers, one civil, the other criminal. Each is the court of last resort within its own district, but, unlike the Supreme Court of the United States, has power only to quash the decisions of the lower courts on account of errors in law, and send them back for rehearing. Like all European courts, they have no power to declare statutes null and void on account of their repugnance to the Constitution. As in France, the so-called separation of justice from administration exists, and a series of administrative tribunals, modeled after those of France, have been created. The highest of these is the judicial section of the Council of State. A source of danger to the Italian judiciary is its lack of independence as over against the administration. The judges are irremovable after three years of service, but they may be transferred to less desirable judicial stations by the Minister in the 'interest of the service.' It is claimed that this power has been abused to the detriment of the judicial service.

monetary system as France (so far as the standard of money and coinage is concerned, not the method of issuing paper money). The amount of fractional silver coinage to which Italy is entitled under the provisions of the Union has been fixed at about $46,000,000. The coins are the same in value, size, and fineness as those in France, except that the name lira (plur. lire) is substituted for franc, and centesimo for centime. The metric system applies to all weights and measures.

POPULATION. Italy ranks sixth among the countries of Europe with respect to population, coming after France. The following table shows the area and population by provinces in 1881 and 1901.

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Umbria, Prov. Perugia

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Latium, Prov. Rome..

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Abruzzi e Molise.
Avellino
Benevento
Caserta.

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Salerno.

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Campania

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Bari delle Puglie
Foggia..
Lecce..

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Apulia

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Basilicata, Province
Potenza

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COLONIES. The history of the colonial expansion of Italy is the same as of its military expansion-an attempt to keep abreast with the great powers in the most costly and ruinous of activities without having first developed the productive sources at home. The colonial policy has been advocated by Italian statesmen as a means of increasing foreign commerce, because in other countries it has served as an outlet for overflowing industry and trade. The result has been disastrous to the Government and country alike. After spending about $75.000,000 on the African Naples. possessions Italy has been forced to abandon most of its ambitious schemes. See section History in this article.

The present Italian possessions include the colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea, with an area of about 95,000 square miles, and a population in 1899 of more than 329,500; and Italian Somaliland, with an area of 100,000 square miles, and a population of 400.000. A trading company known as "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" has charge of most of the administration of the latter colony, but, although the company is supposed to derive a considerable revenue from its operations in Africa, the Government has to contribute more than $1,000,000 annually to cover the deficit of administration.

MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. As a member of the Latin Union, Italy has the same

Belluno
Padua
Rovigo
Treviso.
Udine

Venezia
Verona

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790,776 937,786
114,295
121,612
284,484

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169,469

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283,563 320,020 205,926 234,626 2,208,869 2,548,154

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9.304
2,030 433,975 482,788
2,568 451,185 462,893 1876..
1,221 372,723 430,079 1880..
1885..
5,819 1,257,883 1,375,760
1,263
1,917
1,172

124,088
318,610
195,840

238,744 272,359 EMIGRATION. The unsatisfactory condition of 144,825 public affairs is responsible for the enormous tide of emigration. More than 2,000,000 Italian emigrants are living in foreign countries, and their number increases from year to year by hundreds of thousands. The growth of emigration in the last quarter of the nineteenth century was as follows:

1891..

Messina

1,246

1,948

Palermo
Syracuse
Trapani..

Sicily...

Cagliari

Sassari

Sardinia

Kingdom of Italy

1896.
266,379 330,972 1898..
563,457 711,923 1900..
312,487 371,471
460,924 548,898
699,151 785,016
1,442 341,526 427,429
948 283,977 353,557
9,936 2,927,901 3,529,266
5,204 420,635 482,000
4,090 261,367 307,314
789,314

9,294

682,002
110,623 28,459,628 32,449,754

The following list shows the increase of population, during the nineteenth century, within the present territory of the Kingdom:

1816..

1848..

1861..

1871.

1881.

1901.

108,771

119,901

157,193

293,631

307,482

283,715

352,782

It will be seen that the emigration increased more than threefold in the period indicated. As the conditions responsible for this exodus from the country do not seem to improve much, there are no reasons to expect any decline of emigration in the near future. The region contributing most to the emigration is the less productive and more poorly developed southern portion of the Peninsula from Naples southward, and the emigrants are chiefly peasants or representatives of other lower classes.. The Province of Genoa connorth to the stream of emigration. The country tributes more than any other province in the most vitally interested in this question is the United States. As late as 1888 less than 12 per cent. of all the Italian emigrants went to the United States, while more than 33 per cent. went 25,000,000 to Brazil, and about 23 per cent. to Argentina, 28,459,628 Uruguay, and Paraguay. In 1900 the proportion was reversed, the number of immigrants to the United States, Brazil, and Argentina being 136,000, 11,500, and 72,000, or 38.5, 3.3, and 20.4 per cent., respectively. About one-half go to land, Austria, and Germany. The majority of European countries, especially France, Switzerthese ultimately return home, and the remainder finally embark for America.

18,383,000
23,617,000

26,801,154

32,449,754

Thus there has been an increase of 4,000,000 people, or about 14 per cent., in twenty years. With respect to density of population, over 293 people per square mile, Italy ranks third among the countries of Continental Europe, coming after Belgium and the Netherlands. In general, the Lorthern portion of Italy, extending as far south as Florence, is more densely populated than the remaining portions. The population is remarkably homogeneous, the number of distinctly nonItalian inhabitants being small and concentrated in a few districts; as, for instance, the 80,000 people of French origin in the Province of Turin; 90,000 Albanians in Sicily and Southern Italy; 30,000 Greeks in Calabria and on the Adriatic coast; 30,000 Slavs in Northeast Italy, in the vicinity of the Austrian frontier; 11,500 Germans living mostly in the north, and some 10.000 Spanish in Sardinia.

The number of foreigners residing temporarily in Italy is very small-about 66.000 in 1901. Contrary to the experience of most European countries, there is a slight excess of males over females in Italy.

The following table includes all towns having a population of over 100,000 in 1901:

VOL. XI.-4.

BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MARRIAGES. The birthrate of Italy, although fully up to the normal, has been slowly declining. While it annually exceeded 37 per 1000 inhabitants prior to the last decade of the nineteenth century, in 1897 it was only 35.11. On the other hand, the deathrate has declined much more rapidly, having decreased from 28.10 per 1000 inhabitants in 1887 to 22.16 in 1897, the Italian Government justly which have made such results possible. The priding itself on the sanitary improvements excess of births over deaths, which was only 7.19 per 1000 inhabitants in 1872, increased to 12.94 in twenty-five years.

RELIGION. The great bulk of the inhabitants of Italy belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Especial prominence attaches to the Church in Italy from the fact that the seat of the central administration of the Church is in Rome. The welfare and harmony of the

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