the Twelve, went off to the high priests to deliver Jesus to them, and when they heard this proposal they rejoiced and promised to give him money, and he began to seek how he might conveniently deliver him up. At the supper, Jesus predicts that one of the number is to betray him, but no name is mentioned. After Gethsemane, Judas, at the head of an armed force, comes to Jesus and gives him a kiss, the traitor's audacious sign by which the crowd identifies Jesus. With this kiss, Judas passes out of history for the oldest narrative. The other two Synoptists, Luke and Matthew, who here as elsewhere follow in general the narrative of Mark, add, however, at this point new material to the earliest tradition, chiefly of an interpretative character. Luke interprets Mark's promise to give money as an agreement, after consultation with the high priests and temple officers, to which Judas assents; and attributes the treason, moreover, to the entrance of Satan into him (xxii. 3-6). Matthew likewise in terprets Mark's promise as an agreement, and makes Judas say to the priests: "What will you give me to betray Him to you?" The result of the parleying is that they weigh out or pay him thirty pieces of silver. Both these details, the immediate payment and the exact amount of money, are preserved only in Matthew. At the Paschal Supper, Judas is named as the traitor in the following words: "Surely it is not I, Rabbi?" He says to him, "It is" (xxvi. 25). Coming to the fourth Evangelist, we find that it is he alone who indicates any suspicion against Judas before the betrayal. Already, in John vi. 70, Jesus is recorded as saying: "Have I not chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil?" But nowhere is there reference to money in connection with the betrayal, although it is suggested, in passing that Judas was the treasurer of the Twelve (xiii. 29). The Evangelist does, however, distinctly ascribe the act of treason to devilish or Satanic influence (xii. 2, 27). After Jesus has washed the disciples' feet, He predicts His betrayal at the hands of him to whom He gives the bread. "And when Jesus had dipped the piece of bread, He took it and gave it to Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot," whereupon Satan entered into him, “and he went out straightway, and it was night" (xiii. 26 sqq.). To the narrative of the arrest of Jesus in a place well known to Judas, the Evangelist adds further details, but omits the traitor's demonstrative kiss. Then for John, as for Mark, Judas passes out of history (xviii. 1-8). Two accounts preserved, one by Luke (Acts i. 16-20) and the other by Matthew (xxvii. 3-10); show the violent death of Judas and the name of the field, Aceldama; but reveal differences in the matter of the purchase of the land, the land bought, the reason for the name 'Field of Blood,' and the motive of the story. A still later tradition is the grewsome tale of Papias, which narrates that Judas first tried death by hanging, but was rescued; that later he died a horrible death in his own field.

In view of the criticisms both ancient and modern, directed against the historicity of the betrayal by Judas, and in view of the divergences in the Gospel narratives, it may be well to call attention to certain facts. It is generally admitted that the Gospel of Mark is the oldest of the Gospel narratives written by a friend and companion of the three prominent missionaries, Peter (an eye-witness of the betrayal), Paul, and

Barnabas. In accord with his usual habit to give facts as he knows them, and not to make inferences, Mark gives a simple, circumstantial narrative of the betrayal, with not a word about the motives of Judas. In favor of the essential historicity of Mark's narration, it is to be argued that the story is imbedded in the oldest tradition; that it is narrated objectively; that it accounts for the sudden disappearance of Judas and the election of Matthias; that it is the kind of story that no Christian would ever think of inventing. The later Evangelists, as is their habit, introduce reflections and interpretations into their narratives, and give details according to individual inclinations and the purpose they had in view in writing. While Mark states only the facts of the betrayal, with no reflection on the motive, and no emphasis on a money agreement with the priests, the later Evangelists add, along with other details, that there was a definite stipulation for a money consideration (Matthew and Luke); that the deed was due to Satanic influence (Luke and John), or avarice (Matthew), or both (Luke). Beyond these two hints, the Gospels are silent as to motives. Matthew alone records the tradition that exactly thirty pieces of silver were paid, because to him the thirty pieces were the fulfillment of prophecy (Zech. xi. 13, quoted as if from Jeremiah). Luke is interested in the explanation of the name Aceldama, and further in the death of Judas as preparing the way for the election of Matthias. The narrative of the death of Judas has at least this amount of fact, that Judas not simply disappeared, but met a violent death.

It has been thought by some that the act of Judas may have been prompted by a desire to place Jesus in a crucial position where He would be forced to save Himself by the exercise of supernatural power. On this view the betrayal was a bold attempt to apply a decisive test to the claim of Jesus as the Messiah. Or it may have been the act of one who firmly believed in Him and expected, as the result, to behold Jesus triumphantly establish Himself as king-a consummation no doubt ardently desired by many of Jesus' followers.

JUDAS MAC'CABÆ’US. The hero of the

He was

Jewish war of independence waged against the Syrian kings in the second century B.C. one of five brothers, all distinguished for bravery and skill, sons of Mattathias, a priest of the order of Joarib, whose home was at Modin, a town about 18 miles northwest of Jerusalem. When the emissaries of Antiochus Epiphanes, in the attempt to uproot the Jewish faith, in B.C. 168, reached Modin, Mattathias slew the King's officer, raised the standard of revolt, and with his sons fled to the mountains. At his death, shortly after, he committed the cause to his sons, appointing Judas their military leader. The surname of Judas was Maccabæus (I. Macc. iii. 1), commonly supposed to mean 'the hammerer,' though this is by no means certain. Judas was, after David, the greatest of Israel's heroes. With a few thousand followers he defeated four Syrian armies in succession, two of them immensely superior to his own in numbers, and was able, in December, B.C. 165, to restore the Jewish worship at the temple, which had been discontinued for three years. The memory of this event was commemorated in the annual eight-day Feast of Dedication on the 25th Chislev (November-December). From now

on until his death Judas was the virtual head of the Jewish people, though he bore no official title. He did not assume the office of high priest as his brother Jonathan did later. Extensive campaigns were undertaken against enemies of the Jews on all sides. The Edomites to the south, the Ammonites to the east, the Arabs, and other people were conquered or punished for maltreatment of Israelites. On the death of Antiochus Epiphanes (B.C. 164), Lysias, guardian of the young Antiochus V., invaded Judea with an army of 100,000 men and advanced to Jerusalem, after a vain attempt by Judas to check his progress. But troubles at Antioch compelled Lysias to retire, and Judas took advantage of the opportunity to secure Syrian recognition of the religious liberty of the Jews. This accomplished, Judas worked toward political independence. To this end he dispatched an embassy to Rome proposing an alliance, hoping thereby to secure Judea against further subjection. The answer came too late, for dissensions among the Jews and the intrigues of the pro-Syrian party had proved fatal to his plans. Though he won a glorious victory over the forces of Demetrius I. of Syria, under Nicanor (B.C. 163-162), he was unable to rally the full strength of the Jews against a second army, and died in battle against hopeless odds at Elasa (B.c. 161). He was buried in the family sepulchre at Modin, and succeeded by his more shrewd and political brother, Jonathan (q.v.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The main sources of information are I. and II. Maccabees and Josephus's Antiquities, xii. Of these the narrative in I. Maccabees is the most reliable. Compare: Schürer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. trans., London, 1885-91); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (Berlin, 1888); Wellhausen, Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte (Berlin, 1898); H. Weiss, Judas Makkabæus (Freiburg, 1897); Streane, The Age of the Maccabees (London, 1898).

JUDAS OF GALILEE. Leader of a Jewish uprising against the Romans. According to the only mention of him in the New Testament (Acts v. 37) he appeared at the time of the census and carried away the people with him, but himself perished, while all his followers were dispersed. Probably he is to be identified with the Judas of Galilee (or Gamala) of Josephus (Ant. xviii. i.). This Judas, along with Sadduk, resisted the taking of the census under Quirinius (A.D. 6-7), instigated the people in the name of religion to

riot and revolution, but met with little success. Josephus does not record his death, but narrates that his two sons, Jacob and Simon, were later put to death.

JUDAS THE APOSTLE. One of the Twelve Apostles mentioned only by Luke as the eleventh in both his lists (Luke vi. 16; Acts i. 13). He is probably to be identified with the Thaddeus (or Lebbæus) of Mark and Matthew (see THADDÆUS), and with the Judas, 'not Iscariot,' of John (xiv. 22). The name of his father ('not brother') was James (q.v.). Nothing certain is known of him beyond the fact that he was one of the Twelve. He is not to be identified with Jude, the brother of the Lord, for the latter could not fulfill the conditions of eligibility to the Twelve required by Acts i. 21, 22.

JUDAS-TREE (Cercis). A genus of trees of the natural order Leguminosa, named from the tradition that Judas hanged himself on one of them. The common Judas-tree of Europe (Cercis Siliquastrum), a native of the south of Europe and of the warmer temperate parts of Asia, has almost orbicular, very obtuse leaves, and rosecolored flowers which precede them. The American Judas-tree (Cercis Canadensis), a hardy tree, which may reach a height of forty feet, is very similar, but has acuminate leaves. The flowerbuds of both species are frequently pickled in vinegar. Both species furnish a black-veined

JUDAS-TREE.

strikingly beautiful wood, which takes an excellent polish. A third species (Cercis occidentalis) occurs in the Western United States, and one has been introduced from Japan (Cercis Chinensis). All the species flower early in the spring and are very handsome in shrubbery.

An

JUDD, GERRIT PARMLEE (1803-73). Hawaiian statesman, born at Paris, N. Y. He went as missionary physician to the Hawaiian Islands in 1828, with the second body of missionaries sent out from the United States. In 1842 the King induced him to accept a Government position, though, in order to do so, he was forced to sever his connection with the mission. From that time until 1853, when he was compelled by popular jealousy to retire, he was one of the most conspicuous figures in Hawaiian politics. He was largely responsible for the organization of a constitutional government in the islands, and at various times held different ministerial offices, the duties of which he discharged with so much ability that he became virtually the ruler of the country.

JUDD, NORMAN BUEL (1815-78). An American lawyer and politician, born at Rome, N. Y. city, studied law, and in 1836 was admitted to He was educated at the high school in his native the bar. He immediately removed to Chicago, Ill., where he began practice, drew up the first charter of the incorporated city in 1837, and was elected its first city attorney. He was county attorney for Cook County in 1839, and in 1844 was elected to the State Legislature, of which body he remained a member by successive reelections until 1860. Originally a Democrat, he allied himself with the Republican Party in 1856, was a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention in that year, and became chairman of the Illinois State Central Committee of the party. He held

this position when the second Republican national convention convened in Chicago in 1860, and to the adroit political management of Judd, Joseph Medill, and Leonard Swett is probably due, as much as to any other one thing, the nomination of Lincoln for the Presidency. In 1861 he was appointed by President Lincoln Minister to Prussia, where he remained until 1865, and successfully exerted his influence to prevent the recognition of the Confederacy. Having returned to America in 1865, he was elected to Congress in 1868, and served two terms. He was one of the committee of managers of President Johnson's impeachment on the part of the House. The most important legislation of which he was the author was the act creating inland ports of entry and providing for shipment of goods in bond into the interior of the country. In 1873 he was Collector of United States Customs at Chicago. For twenty years before his death he was the best-known railway lawyer in the country, and was closely connected at one time or another with the development of most of the great Western trunk lines.

JUDD, ORANGE (1822-92). An American ag ricultural journalist, born near Niagara Falls, N. Y. He graduated at Wesleyan University in 1847, was editor of the American Agriculturist from 1853 to 1883, agricultural editor of the New York Times from 1855 to 1863, editor of the Prairie Farmer from 1883 to 1888, and afterwards of the Orange Judd Farmer. For many years he exerted a great influence on the agricultural progress of the United States, and largely through his efforts and financial aid the first State agricultural experiment station was established in 1875 at Middletown, Conn., in the Orange Judd Hall of Natural Sciences, which, about that time, he had donated to Wesleyan University.

JUDD, SYLVESTER (1813-53) . An American clergyman and author, born at Westhampton, Mass., July 23, 1813; died at Augusta, Me., January 26, 1853; a son of Sylvester Judd (17891860), the antiquary. Judd, who was brought up in the orthodox faith of New England, was sent to Yale College, whence he was graduated in 1836. Soon after leaving Yale he changed his religious opinions and entered the Cambridge (Mass.) Divinity School, was graduated in 1840, and thereupon became pastor of a Unitarian church in Augusta, Me., where he remained until his death. While a divinity student he wrote A Young Man's Account of His Conversion from Calvinism. He was author also of Margaret: A Tale of the Real and Ideal (1845), a romance which had some vogue, being highly praised by Lowell and containing some good descriptions, although a very uneven performance; a chaotic Unitarian dramatic poem, entitled Philo: An Evangeliad (1850); another romance, Richard Edney and the Governor's Family: A Rus-Urban Tale (1850), a parallel tale to Margaret; and The Church: In a Series of Discourses (1857). He also lectured on social questions, particularly against intemperance, slavery, and war. As a Unitarian Judd was important because his idea of 'the birthright Church,' i.e. that children should be religiously trained and admitted to the Church at adolescence, has grown steadily (cf. G. W. Cooke, Unitarianism in America, 1902, p. 240): His novel Margaret is still sporadically praised by New England critics. Consult his Life and Character, by Hall (Northampton, Mass., 1882).

JUDE (variant of Judas). One of the brothers of Jesus, according to Mark (vi. 3) and Matthew (xiii. 55), who mention him along with James, Joses, and Simon. He was not a believer in the Messiah until after the resurrection (Acts i. 14; John vii. 5; cf. Mark iii. 21). Beyond the hints that he was in Jerusalem after the Ascension (Acts i. 14) and was a married man (I. Cor. ix. 5), nothing is known of him in the New Testament, unless, with tradition, the Epistle of Jude (q.v.) be ascribed to him. Some theologians consider him a cousin or a half-brother of the Lord, rather than a real brother.

JUDE, EPISTLE OF. The last of the twentyone Epistles of the New Testament. It is both an exhortation (3) and a reminder (5) to the beloved readers in view of the presence in their churches of ungodly men who deny Christ as the Lord and are full of lust. The reminder (5-19), based on references to God's dealings with the 'ungodly' in the past, is methodically arranged in five sections, in each of which the historical case is first stated, and then followed by a clause introduced by the favorite apocalyptic ‘these,' indicating the points of comparison between the present 'ungodly' and those of the past, namely, denial and lust. In these two main points they are like the people in the Wilderness, the fallen angels, and the Sodomites (5-8), but are unlike Michael, who did not blaspheme (9-10); they are like Cain, the blasphemer; Balaam, the lustful; Korah, the denier; but are unlike nature, which follows the divine order (11-13); they are like the 'ungodly' of Enoch (14-16) and the lustful mockers of whom the Apostles spoke (17-19). The exhortation (20-23) bids them not only to preserve themselves in God's love, by building themselves up by faith, prayer, and hope, but also to act aggressively, though lovingly, with the 'ungodly,' to the end that those who are not too far gone may yet be saved. The contents reveal both in language and thought close affinities to apocalyptic literature, especially to Enoch (quoted in 14-15) and Assumption (Testament) of Moses (9), allusions to both of which books appear in almost every verse.

The emphasis on the denial and the lust of the 'ungodly' reveals the presence in the churches of a mischievous tendency which in general may be called Gnosticism; that is, a one-sided intellectualism which is chary of the ethical imperative. The theoretical aberration does not seem to have advanced so far as the Docetism of the Johannine and Ignatian Gnostics, but seems rather to be Antinomianism, the well-known and popular caricature of Paul's doctrine of freedom. At all events, it is the practical rather than the speculative heresy which receives the brunt of the author's serious denunciations. Unlike the Gnostics of John and Ignatius, who are simply separatists and individualists, caring nothing for brotherly love, these 'ungodly' are both separatists (19) and gross materialists-lascivious, gluttonous (12), and avaricious (11, 16).

The author was on the point of writing a general homily on 'our common salvation,' but, on hearing of the conduct of the 'ungodly' at the love-feasts (12), writes instead the specific reminder and exhortation. Possibly, but not certainly, the people addressed are to be sought in Antioch of Syria, a theory which would account for their acquaintance with Paul and the Apostles, for the prevalence of Gentile vices, and for

the apparently sudden appearance of the Gnostics. The style of the author is clear and methodical, influenced largely by the apocalyptic type, with which he is at home. His thought, though mainly Jewish-Christian in tone, is not uninfluenced by the Pauline Christianity. His ethical feeling, with its prophetic emphasis on mercy and love, is vigorous and wholesome. Were it not for the words 'brother of James' in the first verse, we should be perplexed to know what Jude was meant, as there were many of that name in the first century. Assuming, however, the genuineness of the words, there is nothing in the rest of the letter which absolutely excludes the traditional ascription of authorship to Jude, the brother of the Lord; for the author still uses freely the Jewish apocalypses, and the Gnosticism is of an incipient, undeveloped character speculatively. There is no reference to the Temple, no reference to persecutions. A date between A.D. 70-80 after Nero and before Domitian is not improbable. That Jude is earlier than II. Peter may be confidently asserted. It is, however, an open question whether II. Peter borrowed from Jude or both independently from a third unknown apocalyptic source. Consult: Spitta, Der zweite Brief des Petrus und der Brief des Judas (Halle, 1885); Zahn, Einleitung in das Neue Testament (2d ed., Leipzig, 1900); Bigg, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of Saint Peter and Saint Jude (International Critical Commentary, New York, 1901); Von Soden, Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament, vol. iii., part 2 (Freiburg, 1892); Kühl, Die Briefe Petri und Juda (6th ed., Göttingen,

1897).

JUDE'A. See PALESTINE.

JUDEICH, yoo'diK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (182894). A German forester, born at Dresden and educated at Tharandt and Leipzig. He served in the Saxon and Bohemian forestry departments; and in 1862 became head of the new school at Weisswasser, whence four years after he returned to Tharandt as director. His most important work is the text-book Die Forsteinrichtung (5th ed. 1893); he edited the seventh and eighth editions of Ratzeburg's Die Waldverderber und ihre Feinde (1876 and 1885-95); and contributed to Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft (1887-88). Judeich edited the Forst- und Jagdkalender (1882 sqq.).

JUDGE (OF., Fr. juge, from Lat. judex, judge, from jus, law + dicere, to say). One who finds a judgment; especially a presiding magistrate in a court of justice. The proceedings of courts of justice may be: (a) to maintain the order of judicial procedure and make provision for the execution of judgments; (b) to find and interpret the legal rule or rules applicable to each case; (c) to determine what the facts in the case are, or at least what facts shall be taken to be proved. While all these different functions frequently are discharged by a single authority, they frequently are separated. Representatives of the people, not otherwise connected with the administration of justice, are frequently charged with the decision of questions of fact, and sometimes with the decision of questions both of fact and of law. This last separation was regularly made in the Greek democracies, in the Roman Republic, and in the early German tribes. A magistrate who was not simply a judicial of

ficer, but who also had duties of general administration, including, in some instances, military duties an archon or prætor or prince or hundredman-presided over the administration of justice, but judgment was rendered by representatives of the people-by 'dikasts' or 'judices,' or (among the Germans) by all the freemen. Contrary to our modern usage, the term 'judge' was not regularly applied to the presiding magistrate, but to the representatives of the people who actually found the judgment. Among the Germans it was frequently applied to the 'wise men' or 'law-speakers' who suggested the judgment which the folk-moot approved or rejected. The term judge was not applied to the presiding magistrate by the Romans until, in the Imperial period, he had become judge of the law and the facts. The term began to be applied to the presiding official by the Germans when he began (in the Frankish Empire) to obtain a considerable degree of control over the findings of the popular court. The relatively modern usage of describing the presiding magistrate as judge even when, as in English criminal procedure, he has no control over the judgment, is connected with the change which has separated judicial from general administration.

With the establishment of a separate and independent judiciary, placed beyond the reach of governmental interference, it has been found practicable, in all countries except those of the English law, to intrust to the judges the power of decision on the facts as well as on the law in civil cases. In criminal cases, however, the system of popular judgment has not only maintained itself in English law, but, after disappearing for centuries, has been reëstablished on the Continent of Europe.

So recent, however, has been the introduction of the jury system in Continental procedure that the inquisitorial traditions of the intermediate period are still strong, and the judge, to English eyes, seems to combine judicial functions with those of a public prosecutor. Compare COURT; MAGISTRATE.

JUDGE, WILLIAM QUAN (1851-). An IrishAmerican Theosophist, born at Dublin. He came to the United States in 1864 with his father, practiced law in New York City from 1872 to 1880, and then founded, with Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott, the Theosophical Society of America. He had been trained in theosophical beliefs and now, as secretary of this society, traveled in South and Central America, the West Indies, and Europe. See THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

JUDGE-ADVOCATE.

general court-martial or military commission. In The prosecutor on a the United States the judge-advocate is usually detailed at the same time the authority for the convening of the court is issued, and, except in exceptional cases, is a member of the judge-advocate-general's department. In the British Army such duties devolve upon a specially detailed staff officer, or the prisoner's commanding officer. In district or regimental court-martials, the latter officer is usually represented by the regimental adjutant. The prisoner has the right to call on any regimental officer to speak in his behalf. See JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL; COURTS, MILITARY; MILITARY LAW, under which latter heading the duties of the judge-advocate in courts-martial are discussed.

JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL.

JUDGE - ADVOCATE - GENERAL. The head of the bureau of military justice in the United States Army. He is the custodian of the records of all general courts-martial, courts of inquiry, military commissions, and of all papers relating to the title of lands under the control of the War Department, except the Washington aqueduct and the public buildings and grounds in the District of Columbia. The officers of his department render opinions upon legal questions when called upon by the proper authority. A similar department exists in all European armies, that of England differing in that the judge-advocate-general is selected from among the high civil judiciary. See COURTS, MILITARY; MILITARY LAW.

JUDGES, BOOK OF (Heb. Shōphěțim, Gk. Kpiraι, kritai, Lat. Liber Judicum). A book of the Old Testament, recording the achievements of a number of leaders at different periods in the early history of the Hebrews, who in the book itself and elsewhere are called judges. (See JUDGES OF ISRAEL.) It cannot be said to be a history, properly speaking. The events reeorded in it do not follow each other chronologically, nor is there any other order to be perceived in their arrangement. The contents of the book may be summarized as follows: (1) An introduction, giving an account of the invasion of Western Palestine by the several tribes, their conquests and settlements, and the agreement reached with the Canaanites, continuing the narrative from Jos. xxiv. 28 (chs. i.-ii. 5); (2) chapters ii. 6-xii.,

an account of the deeds of a number of heroes:

(a) Othniel ben-Kenaz, a Judean, in conflict with Cushan-Rishathaim, King of Aram-Naharaim; (b) Ehud, a Benjaminite, against Moab; (c) Shamgar against the Philistines; (d) Deborah and Barak against Sisera; (e) Gideon, the Manassite, against the Midianites; (f) Abimelech, son of Gideon, against Shechemites; (g) Tola, of the clan of Issachar; (h) Jair, the Gileadite (Manasseh?); (i) Jephthah against the Ammonites; to whom are added Ibzan, Elon (of Zebulon), and Abdon (chap. xii., 8-15), probably representing clans rather than individuals. (3) Story of Samson and his exploits (xiii.-xvi.). (4) Chapters xvii.-xxi., two narratives: (a) Migration of the Danites and establishment of a sanctuary at Dan; (b) an outrage committed upon a traveler by the Benjaminites, and the revenge taken upon the tribe by a combination formed against it. The stories of Eli and Samuel, who are by Jewish tradition counted among the judges, are told in the first Book of Samuel (q.v.).

The point of view from which the history of the Hebrews is regarded is the same in Judges as in the preceding and following books, so that, in the view of modern scholars, the Book of Judges forms a portion of a great historical compilation, beginning with the creation of the world and extending to the destruction of Jerusalem. The eight books (Genesis-Kings) into which this compilation is divided in the Jewish canon are commonly designated as the Octateuch. The period of the judges is portrayed as a falling away from the religion and laws of Yahweh as promulgated by Moses. The struggles and conflicts of the period are regarded as punishments sent by Yahweh against the Hebrew clans for their disobedience. The twelve tribes of the Hebrew confederation are pictured as dwelling in the territory assigned to them by Joshua, but not united except

JUDGES OF ISRAEL.

in cases of emergency for self-defense. The loose union among the Hebrew clans is a part of the picture which corresponds to conditions as they existed before the days of Saul; and the two tales added to the Book of Judges (chs. xvii.-xxi.) form valuable material for reconstructing a picture of the religious and social culture in the earlier period of Hebrew history. There is no trace at this time of an organized religious cult such as is set forth in the Pentateuchal codes, and the religious practices and ideas of the Hebrews did not differ materially from those of the surrounding nations.

So far as the composition of the Book of Judges is concerned, it betrays the same composite character as the Pentateuch and Joshua. Whether, however, the compiler (or compilers) of Judges had before him the compilation JE (see ELOHIST AND YAHWIST) which is found in the Pentateuch and Joshua (q.v.) is a question in regard to which critics are still divided. Recently the trend of opinion is toward recognizing JE also as the basis of Judges, with subsequent introductions and additions made by the same compiler whose hand is recognized in Deuteronomy and still later. However, it must be said that the question is still an open one, and that there is much to be said in favor of assuming different sources for Judges from those found in Joshua and the Pentateuch. The stories in Judges are so promiscuous in character, so independent of each other, that it is not easy to assume a systematically arranged source, such as JE appears in the Pentateuch and Joshua, but, whatever the Sources were, they were combined into a single narrative, and then made to accord with the pragmatism observed in the Hexateuch. On the other hand, it is also evident that the compilation did not end with the death of Samson, but was carried on into the days of Eli and Samuel. deliverance from the Philistines and such a farewell address as is ascribed to Samuel (I. Sam. ch. xii.) are exactly in the style of the narrative in Judges and of the redactor who added the introduction to Judges. It is therefore, safe to assume that this compilation was carried down to the death of Samuel at least, so that the present break between Judges and Samuel is an arbitrary one. Consult: The commentaries of Moore, Bertheau, Keil, Studer; Budde, Richter und Samuel (Giessen, 1890); Frankenberg, Die Composition des deuteronomischen Richterbuchs (Marburg, 1895); and the introductions to the Old Testament by Driver, Kuenen, Bleek-Wellhausen, and König.

The

JUDGES' CAVE. A cave in West Rock, at New Haven, Conn., so named because in 1661 it was the hiding-place of the regicides Goffe and Whalley.

JUDGES OF ISRAEL (Heb. shōphětim). A name given to the leaders who at various intervals directed the affairs of the Israelites from the death of Joshua to the reign of Saul. Their names were Othniel, Ehud. Shamgar, Barak, Gideon, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, Samson, Eli, Samuel. The account of their deeds is given in the Book of Judges and the First Book of Samuel (qq.v.). Without the last two, whose careers are recorded in the Book of Samuel, the number of judges is twelve; with Eli and Samuel, as well as Deborah and Abimelech, the number is sixteen. In reality the judges' are merely a series of heroes and champions, quite independent of one