Istoria del concilio tridentino), Enrico Caterino Davila (1576-1631), Guido Bentivoglio (15791644, Guerra di Fiandra), Agostino Mascardi (1591-1640), Sforza Pallavicino (1607-67, Istoria del concilio di Trento), Danielo Bartoli (1608-85, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù). Marcantonio Mambelli (1582-1644) in his Osservazioni della lingua italiana, and Benedetto Buommattei (1582-1647), in his treatise Della lingua toscana, gave definite grammatical rules for the writing of Italian. The greatest credit is to be given to the writers of scientific prose, and above all to Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), whose influence was most potent over the form of the later scientific literature of Italy. About the middle of the seventeenth century, and largely through the impulse given by Galileo's scientific and literary efforts, a reaction was attempted against the affectation of the foregoing period. A part was played in it by the painter Salvator Rosa (1615-73), the author of satires, odes, and letters; by Vincenzo da Filicaja (1642-1707), and Alessandro Guidi (1650-1712), lyric poets who continued the classic manner of Chiabrera and Testi, and by Lorenzo Magalotti (1637-1712), known for his Saggi di naturali esperienze and his Lettere familiari and Lettere scientifiche. The imitators of Marini's artificial methods were much more numerous than were the writers gifted with good sense. As has already been intimated, an academy called the Arcadia was founded at Rome, in 1690, by Giovanni Maria Crescimbeni (1663-1728) and Giovanni Vincenzo Gravina (1664-1718), for the purpose of bringing into poetry greater naturalness of expression. The means employed therein were too childish, and the Arcadia achieved no reform. It did, however, produce a good deal of poetry, written in its three manners, the first being one in which the sonnet and the madrigal were cultivated, the second that of love lyrics fashioned after the model of Chiabrera's, and the third that of the occasional poem, best represented in the work of Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni (1692-1768), with whom the activity of the Arcadia ended. It was as a lyric poet of the second Arcadian manner that Pietro Metastasio (1698-1782), the most distinguished of all who shared in the movement, began his career, but he is now remembered rather for his operatic dramas (Temistocle, Didone, Olimpiade, Attilia Regolo, Clemenza di Tito), masterpieces of a time when it was still considered necessary that the libretto of an opera should be a work of art. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, a notable French influence is clear in writers of tragedies. Pier Jacopo Martelli (1655-1721) introduced into the drama verses of the French Alexandrine type, called after him, versi martelliani; Scipione Maffei (1675-1755) wrote a tragedy on the classical subject of Merope; and, with his tragedies based on Roman history and strongly sug. gestive of the Shakespearean method, Antonio Conti (1677-1749) heralded the coming of Alfieri. Although he wrote during the time of the Arcadia, Niccolò Forteguerri (1674-1735), the author of many satires, stood apart from all contemporary tendencies. For the inspiration for his poem Ricciardetto he went back to Ariosto. The prose style of the period of the Arcadia is still full of affectation, unless when used for purely scientific purposes, as in the histories and learned treatises of Giambattista Vico (16681744), of Giovanni Maria Mazzuchelli (1707-68),

author of the biographical and bibliographical Scrittori d'Italia, and particularly of Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1672-1750), who compiled the Annali d'Italia and other works of great worth in the development of historical studies. The germs of a new order of things destined to result in a revival of Italian literature begin to unfold as soon as the middle of the eighteenth century is passed. From 1750 to 1789, the date of the French Revolution, Alfieri's tragedies and Parini's verse reflect the contrast between tradi tional classicism and the course of new ideas; between 1789 and 1815, the date of the Restoration in France, Monti and Foscolo, both remarkable for the classic plasticity of their works, represent the idea of national independence and unity; from 1815 to 1850 extends a time of contrast between the romanticism of Manzoni and his followers and the classicism of Leopardi and his school, all united, however, in the struggle against the foreigner. During this whole period from the middle of the century on, the influence of the French philosophical spirit was potent in Italy, which then began also for the first time to pattern itself upon literary models from the North, especially from England and Germany.

The revival becomes obvious at once in dramatic production. The commedia dell' arte is driven from the theatre by the comedies of Carlo Goldoni (1707-93), the great reformer of the Italian stage, who wrote clever plays in Tuscan, in Venetian, and even in French. Ability to picture scenes from real life, keenness of observation, skill in the handling of dialogue, and fertility of invention are characteristics of this first great figure of the new era. Opponents of the reform of Goldoni were Pietro Chiara (170085) and Carlo Gozzi (1720-1806, author of dramatic Fiabe); but Goldoni had many followers. The influence of French comedy, especially of Molière, is clear in the pieces of Goldoni, as is that of French tragedy in the dramas of Vittorio Alfieri (1749-1803), his great compeer. Though he accepted the French tragic form, Alfieri gave it a peculiarly Italian significance, infusing it with a spirit of liberty and national consciousness which inspired the young men of the next generation in their struggle against Austrian oppression. The principles animating the tragedies (Filippo, Virginia, Oreste, Saul, irra) are also present in the other writings of Alfieri, as, for example, in the Satire, the treatise Della tirannide, the poem Etruria liberata, the Misogallo directed against the French, his Rime, and his autobiography. Intensity of patriotic sentiment prevails also in the lyrics (Odi) of Giuseppe Parini (1729-99), works highly satisfactory in form and expression. Parini's most famous production is the Giorno, a descriptive poem in blank verse in which he satirizes the idle life of the aristocratic youth. In the Poesie campestri e marittime of Aurelio Bertola (1753-98) one may see the influence both of the German Gessner and of the Latin bucolic poets, while the patriotic vein runs through the Animali parlanti of Giambattista Casti (17211803). Melchiorre Cesarotti (1730-1808) composed much in prose and in verse, but he is now remembered chiefly for his translation of the socalled Ossian and his version of the Iliad. The best prose writers of this first modern period were Gaspare Gozzi (1713-86), who modeled his Osservatore on the Spectator, and in his Difesa di Dante gave

renewed life to the study of the poet; Giuseppe Baretti (1719-89), the author of Lettere familiari, that are charming in their descriptive style, and of the satirical Frusta letteraria, in which he lashed contemporary writers; and Girolamo Tiraboschi (1731-94), whose Storia della letteratura italiana extends down to the end of the seventeenth century. A man in whom eclectic tendencies were dominant was Vincenzo Monti (1754-1828), who, rejuvenating traditional forms of Italian poetry, could breathe into them the modern spirit of liberty that the French Revolution had lately evoked, and add to them elements borrowed from the best that foreign literature could offer. He began with imitations of the Arcadian manner of Frugoni, but applied himself before long to more serious purposes, and reviving the form of the Dantesque poem in his Bassvilliana, which describes the horrible excesses of revolution, he next constituted himself the spokesman of democracy in his tragedy, Caio Gracco, and in a number of other no less important works. His translation of the Iliad is a performance of some merit. A no less typical personage of the time between the French Revolution and the fall of Napoleon was Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), whose compositions echo the Italian aversion to the Imperial sway of Napoleon. An imitator of Alfieri in his tragedy Tieste, Foscolo copied Goethe's Werther in his Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis. His masterpiece is the poem I Sepolcri, which, recalling the glories of past heroes, stimulated the Italians of his time to action imitative thereof; his tragedy Ajace is in a classic strain, while another tragedy, Ricciarda, deals with mediæval tradition. In his Poesie campestri, Ippolito Pindemonte (1753-1828) rests under obligations to English poets as well as to the Greeks and Latins; his Sepolcri is an answer to Foscolo's work. Pindemonte translated the Odyssey into blank verse. From the prose writers of the Napoleonic period we may single out Carlo Botta (1766-1837), an advocate of political freedom in his historical works (Storia della guerra d'indipendenza degli Stati Uniti d'America and Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al 1814); Giovanni Giraud (1776-1834), whose comedies follow French models; Luigi Lanzi (1732-1810), who wrote the Storia pittorica d'Italia; and Leopoldo Cicognara (1767-1834), the author of the Storia della scoltura. A purist in speech and an ardent admirer of the older masters of the fourteenth century, of whose works he prepared editions, was Antonio Cesari (1760-1828), whose efforts were paralleled by those of Michele Colombo (1747-1838). With the end of the Napoleonic régime, the feeling for mediaval independence began to grow stronger and stronger, and finally it culminated in the struggle with the Austrians in 1848. The sentiment of the leaders of national thought at this time found expression in many works of value, categorized, as the case may be, as belonging to the Classic or the Romantic School. In all alike the idea of political unity ruled supreme. While the Romantic School was growing under the influence of German and English literature with its centre in Lombardy (for its organ, the Conciliatore, was published at Milan), the Classic School clung to the tradition of Alfieri and Foscolo, giving preference to the forms of antiquity as the most perfect expression of the human ideal, and receiving its greatest develop.

ment in Romagna. The leader of the former school was Manzoni, the leader of the latter was Leopardi.

Alessandro Manzoni (1785-1873), essaying at first the classic manner, entered upon the path more peculiarly his own with the Inni sacri (1815), and the ode Il cinque Maggio on Napoleon's death (1821). Disregarding the classic unities of time and place, he composed, between 1817 and 1822, two tragedies, Il Conte di Carmagnola and the Adelchi, among the early examples in Italy of the historical drama. He also gave to the century the first Italian historical novel in his celebrated Promessi sposi, a work of the kind that Scott had already cultivated with so much success. It proved to be a masterpiece, and be came popular at home and abroad. Not the least merit of the author in connection with this work is that it brought literature nearer to the masses. About Manzoni there grouped themselves many romanticists who imitated his religious and patriotic hymns, his historical dramas, and his novel. Some of them were Giovanni Berchet (1783-1851), the founder of the Conciliatore: Tommaso Grossi (1791-1853); Silvio Pellico (1789-1854), the author of tragedies and lyrics, but better known for his prose work descriptive of his experience in Austrian prisons, Le mie prigioni; Giuseppe Nicolini (1788-1855), who translated Byron and wrote a biography of Scott; Giuseppe Giusti (1809-50), who produced political satires and burlesque poems; Massimo d'Azeglio (1798-1866), who wrote the historical novels Ettore Fieramosca and Nicolò de' Lapi, and the autobiography I miei ricordi; Giuseppe Mazzini (1808-72), a patriot and the best critic of the Romantic set; and Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi (1804-73), who published many historical novels (Battaglia di' Benevento, Beatrice Cenci, etc.). As critics and historians, Cesare Balbo (17891853) and Gino Capponi (1792-1876, founder of the Antologia and the Archivio storico italiano) deserve especial mention. The classicist Giacomo Leopardi (1798-1837) stood far above the others of his group. A humanist of marvelous force, Leopardi strove ever to attain classic excellence of form. His Idilli, Canzoni, and Canti show an entire harmony of form and matter, and through all sounds the note of anguish that emanated from his tortured soul and found further expression in the pessimism of his philosophy. His prose works, like the Pensieri, are likewise commendable for their form. The critic and expounder of the doctrines of classicism was Pietro Giordani (1774-1848); others who put the doctrines into practice were Dionigi Strocchi (1762-1850), Cesare Montalti (1770-1840), Francesco Cassi (1778-1846), Carlo Marenco (180046), and Giambattista Niccolini (1782-1861), both of whom produced many tragedies.

Of writers of the past half-century, it is hard to speak with any certainty that one is estimating them at their proper value. Yet a prominent place must be assigned to Giovanni Prati (181584), who published many collections of lyrics (Canti lirici, Ballate, Iside, Psiche, etc.) and the versified tale Edmenegarda. Also of note for their lyric verse are Aleardo Aleardi (1812-78, Lettere a Maria). Giuseppe Regaldi (1809-83). Giuseppe Maccari (1840-67), Francesco dall' Ongaro, Stornelli politici (1808-73), Luigi Mercantini (1821-72), Domenico Carbone (1823-83), Lorenzo Stecchetti (pseudonym of Olindo Guer

rini, born 1845, a verista or realist), Bernardino Zendrini (1839-79, the translator of Heine), Giosuè Carducci (born 1836, the most illustrious figure among contemporary Italian authors, equally great as a poet and as a critic), Mario Rapisardi (born 1844, an antagonist of Carducci). Of dramatists there may be noted Pietro Cossa (1830-81, tragedies and historical plays), Paolo Ferrari (1822-89, historical pieces), Paolo Giacometti (1816-82, tragedies), Leo di Castelnuovo (pseudonym of Leopoldo Pulle, born 1835, author of the comedy Fuochi di paglia), Tommaso Gherardi del Testa (1815-81, a follower of Goldoni), Giuseppe Giacosa (born 1847, writer of dramas on medieval subjects, etc.). Among the more recent prose writers are, in addition to some dramatists already recorded, Ippolito Nievo (1836-61, Confessioni di un ottuagenario), and Paolo Emiliani Giudici (1812-72), Luigi Settembrini (1813-76), and Francesco de Sanctis (1818-83), all three literary historians of worth. A list of living writers would inevitably contain, besides the name of Giosuè Carducci, the names of the novelists Antonio Fogazzaro (born 1842), Enrico Castelnuovo (born 1839), Antonio Giulio Barrili (1836), Salvatore Farina (born 1846), Giovanni Verga (born 1840, from whose Cavalleria rusticana came the inspiration for Mascagni's opera), Gabriele d'Annunzio (born 1864, a master of style, and a lyric poet and dramatist, as well as a novelist, but unfortunately too pornographic in his tendencies), Edmondo de Amicis (born 1848, well known abroad, but rather overrated), Matilda Serao (born 1856, most successful in her pictures of Neapolitan life, as in Il paese di cuccagna); and as lyric poets there must be registered Arturo Graf (born 1848), and Ada Negri (born 1870). Lack of space forbids mention of the many disciples of Carducci. We must forbear making a catalogue of living scientific authors and critics. One properly prepared would undoubtedly include the names of Graziadio Isaia Ascoli (born 1829), Angelo de Gubernatis (born 1840), Pasquale Villari (born 1827), Pio Rajna (born 1849), Alessandro d'Ancona (born 1835), Cesare Lombroso (born 1836), and Domenico Comparetti (born 1835).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Casini, Manuale di letteratura italiana (2d ed., Florence, 1891); id., "Geschichte der italienischen Litteratur," in Gröber, Grundriss der romanischen Philologie, vol. ii. (Strassburg, 1896); Gaspary, Geschichte der italienischen Litteratur (Berlin, 1885-88); id., Die sicilianische Dichterschule des 13. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1878); Bartoli, Storia della letteratura italiana (Florence, 1878-89); D'Ancona and Bacci, Manuale della letteratura italiana (ib., 1892-94); Fornaciari, Disegno storico della letteratura italiana (ib., 1893); Mazzoni, Avviamento allo studio critico delle lettere italiane (Padua, 1892); the collection L'Italia (Milan, 1878-80), comprising Bartoli, I primi due secoli della letteratura italiana (1880), Invernizzi, Il risorgimento (1878), Canello. La storia della letteratura italiana nel secolo XVI. (1880), Morsolin, Il Seicento (1880), and Zanella, Storia della letteratura italiana dalla metà del Settecento ai giorni nostri (1880); Giudici, Storia della letteratura italiana (Florence, 1865); id., Storia del teatro in Italia (ib., 1869); Finzi, Lezioni di storia della letteratura italiana (Turin, 1879-83); Torraca, Manuale della letteratura italiana (2d ed., Florence,

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1886-87); Körting, Geschichte der Litteratur Italiens im Zeitalter der Renaissance (Leipzig, 1878-84); Roux, Histoire de la littérature contemporaine en Italie, 1859-74 (Paris, 1869-77); Settembrini, Lezioni di letteratura italiana (Naples, 1868-70); De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana (3d ed., Naples, 1879); Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (3d ed., Berlin, 1893); Symonds, "Italian Literature," in his Renaissance in Italy (1875-86); Gar-, nett, A History of Italian Literature (New York, 1900); Howells, Modern Italian Poets (ib., 1887); Lee, The Eighteenth Century in Italy; Ferrari, Letteratura italiana moderna e contemporanea, 1748-1901 (Milan, 1901); Turri, Dizionario storico-manuale della letteratura italiana, 1000-1990 (ib., 1900); Giornale, Storico della letteratura italiana (Turin, 1882); and the numerous special articles and treatises cited by D'Ancona and Bacci, in their very useful Manuale (Florence, 1892-94).

ITALIAN MOLIÈRE, mo'lyâr', THE. A name given to the Italian dramatist Goldoni (q.v.).

ITALIAN PINDAR, THE. A name given to the lyric poet Chiabrera (q.v.).

ITALIAN POLITICAL PARTIES. See POLITICAL PARTIES, paragraph Italy.

The

ITALIAN SOMALILAND, so-mä'lê-lănd. A protectorate of Italy, on the eastern coast of Africa, extending along the Indian Ocean from the equator to the Gulf of Aden (Map: Africa, J 4). It is bounded on the west by British Somaliland, Abyssinia, and British East Africa. The area is about 100,000 square miles. In the formation of its surface it resembles British Somaliland. It is generally an arid region, flat along the coast and elevated in the interior, the general slope being to the southeast. There are no rivers of practical importance. The Schebehli, the largest stream, fails to reach the sea. vegetation is poor. There are scarcely any forested areas. The interior has not yet been fully explored, owing in part to the stubborn hostility of the natives. The climate is rather favorable. There are hot and cool and wet and dry seasons. The principal ports are Madisha and Obbia. Bardera is an important point in the interior, near the Juba River. The population-the Somali (q.v.)-is estimated at 400,000. There are some Arabs along the coast. The southern part of the protectorate was acquired by Italy in 1889, when the Sultan of Obbia placed the territory from 2° 30' to 5° 33′ north under Italian protection. In the same year the protectorate was extended farther north, and in 1892 the cession of territory by the Sultan of Zanzibar increased the protectorate to its present proportions. The sphere of Italian influence, according to agreements with Great Britain, is bounded by the Juba River as far as 6° N. latitude, and by the 35th E. meridian from this parallel northward to the Blue Nile.

ITALIAN VERSIONS. See BIBLE.

ITALIC LANGUAGES. The name applied to the ancient Indo-Germanic dialects of Italy, which form a distinct branch of the Indo-Germanic languages (q.v.). They are on the whole more closely related to the Hellenic (see GREEK LANGUAGE) than to any other of the great divi

phedon (q.v.) manner, the Italic characters seem to have been based on the Greek alphabet of the Chalcidian colonies in Italy, especially on that of Cuma. Two forms were derived from this source, the Latino-Faliscan and the EtruscoOsco-Umbrian. (For a discussion of the origin and the development of the Latino-Faliscan dialect, reference may be made to the article on LATIN LANGUAGE.) The Osco-Umbrian alphabets consisted of twenty-one and nineteen letters respectively, and were read, like the oldest Latin and Greek, from right to left. The letters were as follows:

Oscan

N 3IEV V IHMONXТП > Я 8 × 801 a ei í uú v nmrlkt pgdbs f h z

There were a few numerical signs, Osco-Umbrian for 1, X for 10, Oscan V for 5,) for 100. Both Oscan and Umbrian, however, frequently employed the Latin alphabet. In modern linguistic works the words in Osco-Umbrian script are usually printed in spaced Roman type, those in Latin letters are represented by italics, as Oscan faksiad, let him make,' fefacust, he shall have made.' In addition the oldest Italic inscriptions are in many cases written in the Greek alphabet. Punctuation in the inscriptions is capricious, and frequently neglected; the usual system, however, is one or more dots, the number ranging even to four in the Old Sabellian text.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ITALIC DIALECTS. The chief peculiarities of Italic are as follows: Phonological-Indo-Germanic m and n become em and en; Indo-Germanic r and become or and ol; internal Indo-Germanic tl becomes kl; Indo-Germanic bh, dh, and kh become f, P, x; intervocalic Indo-Germanic s becomes z. Morphological-Ablative singular in -ād, ēd, -id by analogy with the ablative in ōd; *som (Latin sum). 'I am,' for Indo-Germanic *esmi. The noun has lost the instrumental case and the dual number, while the verb has confused the aorist and perfect tenses, has formed a new imperfect in -ba-, and several new ways of forming the future, has made a future perfect and a pluperfect peculiar to itself, and has confused the Indo-Germanic subjunctive and optative in its so-called subjunctive. The phonology of the Osco-Umbrian is, relatively speaking, far more simple and primitive than the Latin; the declension, however, is less clear than in Latin, and the same statements seem to hold true of the conjugation, although the materials for reconstructing the Osco-Umbrian verb are, unfortunately, very meagre. For the relation of Latin sounds and inflections to the Indo-Germanic system, see LATIN LANGUAGE; GRIMM'S LAW; VERNER'S LAW; INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES.

PHONOLOGY. The following table will serve to show the general phonological relations of Oscan and Umbrian with the Indo-Germanic sound system: