His disciples to the semi-Gentile regions to the north of Galilee, spending there some six months (April to October, A.D. 28; John vi. 4 and vii. 2). His motive in thus going to a newer field was not apparently to begin there another popular ministry, though miracles were wrought and instruction was given. It was rather, by absence from the excited crowds of Galilee, to prepare His disciples for the final outcome of His mission, which was to issue in Jerusalem. This is gathered from the chief event recorded for us in this period-the confession of His Messiahship by the twelve, made in the neighborhood of Cæsarea Philippi. This evidently formed a turning-point in the development of His work, since He immediately followed it with His first distinct announcement to the disciples of the divine necessity of His death, which He foresaw would ultimately result from the hostility toward Him on the part of the authorities at Jerusalem. This announcement naturally His disciples could not comprehend. The falling away from Him which had been occasioned by His recent discourse in Capernaum had depressed them, especially as they came to realize its positive and permanent character. On the other hand, they themselves shared the popular conceptions of the promised Messianic age as an age which would be national as well as religious (see Acts i. 6), so that to their mind the ultimate issue of their Master's mission could not possibly in volve His death. They were thus disposed to resent such an outlook on His part. But Jesus was clearly conscious of the issue, and equally conscious that it must be finally met in Jerusalem. His final return to Galilee from the north consequently was not to resume there His work among the people, but to pass through that region on His last journey to Jerusalem. D. JUDEAN PERIOD. This journey brought Him to the city at the Feast of Tabernacles (A.D. 28) (John vii. 1-10). Whatever hopes He may have had of finally winning the city were doomed to disappointment. He found the people full of discussion about Him, and largely divided in their opinions regarding Him. This situation He met with a discourse, bold in its criticism of the people's unbelief and assertive in its claims of His own divine authority, the result of which was such embitterment of feeling against Him that His life was endangered and He withdrew from the city. Shortly before the Feast of Dedication, however, He returned, throwing the people anew into discussion and division by a notable miracle upon a man born blind, and by further discourses. The result was another threatening of His life, which again compelled Him to leave the city. This withdrawal was of longer duration, and for the greater part spent at a distance from the city. It was mostly occupied with an instruction of the disciples and the multitudes, having in view the approaching crisis of His work and life. Miracles, however, were performed, among them the remarkable one at the grave of Lazarus, the result of which, in its impression upon the people, was so significant as to crystallize the enmity against Him among the authorities into a definite determination to put Him to death. E. CLOSING PERIOD. On the approach of the Passover (A.D. 29), Jesus returned for the last time toward the city, reaching Bethany six days before the event. On the Sunday of Passover week, in the midst of a large concourse of people, attracted to Him from among the pilgrims to the feast, He entered the city with a publicity of popular enthusiasm superficial as that in Galilee had been, and yet impressive enough to arouse to renewed bitterness the enmity of both Sadducees and Pharisees. During the rest of that day, as well as on Monday and Tuesday, He remained in the city, withdrawing to Bethany for the night, where He also spent in retirement the whole of Wednesday and most of Thursday. These days in the city were given to an unrestrained presentation of His Messianic claims by miracle, parable, discourse, and discussion that brought Him into open conflict with Pharisees, Sadducees, and Herodians together. The effect of this was to bring to final issue the hostile purpose of His enemies. This issue was reached on the night of Thursday. On that night Jesus had eaten with His disciples the Passover meal. In connection with this meal He had instituted the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, the purpose of which apparently was not so much to make a last announcement of His approaching death as to present it clearly before His disciples in its character as a sacrifice for sin. (See Lord's Supper in the article GOSPELS.) After this supper, while Jesus, in company with certain of His disciples, was in the Garden of Gethsemane, He was apprehended by a band from the chief priests and Pharisees. This band was under the lead of Judas Iscariot, who was one of the Twelve, and who had betrayed Him to the authorities. Upon His apprehension He was taken before Annas, and then Caiaphas, the high priest, by whom He was examined. Later, when the morning came, He was led before a hastily gathered meeting of the Sanhedrin, where such process of trial as might be called by that name was gone through with. This resulted at last in the taking of Jesus, bound as a prisoner, to the Governor, Pontius Pilate, with charges which provoked discussion between Pilate and the leaders, and induced Pilate to question Jesus as to Himself and the charges brought against Him. From this questioning Pilate was convinced of Jesus' innocence, and resorted to various expedients to save Him from the hatred of the rulers. This, however, was a difficult task; for the rulers had gathered to their aid and support the populace, who, disappointed at Jesus' failure to realize their political hopes, had turned revengefully against Him, and, with the chief priests and elders, were insistent on His death. Finally, through a shrewd presentation of the case as one involving His political attitude to the Emperor, Pilate was induced to yield and give Jesus over for crucifixion. This was carried out on that same day, Friday, at the usual place of crucifixion outside the city, Jesus being crucified between two condemned insurrectionists. Around the crosses were gathered a riotous mob of people and religious officials from the city, a few of the more loyal disciples, and the Roman guard, who watched the agony of the hours till the death of Jesus came. Upon them all the event evidently wrought a deep impression, though it is doubtful whether those whose enmity to Jesus had brought the event about had conscience enough to suffer remorse, while it is certain that to Jesus' disciples it marked the end of all their hopes. On the evening of the day the body was taken by Jesus' friends from the cross, through Pilate's permission, and buried in a sepulchre near at hand. On the Sunday following, upon the visit of certain of the women disciples to the tomb for the purpose of embalming the body, it was found that the stone had been rolled away and the sepulchre itself was empty. Later Jesus Himself appeared to the women, and then to other of the disciples in various places and to varying numbers. These appearances were repeated at intervals during forty days. Jesus seems to have given Himself in them to interpreting to His disciples the meaning of His death in the light of the Old Testament Scriptures, and to further instructing them in "the things pertaining to the kingdom of God" (Acts i. 3). At some time within this period He laid upon them the specific commission to go out into all the world as His representatives and bring men into His discipleship (Matt. xxviii. 18-20). Finally, in a company of the disciples whom He had led out from the city to Bethany, He was taken from them into heaven. (See Resurrection, in the article GOSPEL.) From Bethany the disciples returned to Jerusalem, where they waited until the day of Pentecost, at which time, under manifestations of special inspiration from heaven, they began their work of the proclamation of Jesus' religion to the world. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult, among the more recent books: (1) For General Survey of Narrative: Keim, Geschichte Jesu von Nazara (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1876-81); Stalker, The Life of Jesus Christ (Edinburgh, 1880); B. Weiss, Das Leben Jesu (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1883); Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (London, 1883); Andrews, The Life of Our Lord (New York, 1892); Beyschlag, Das Leben Jesu (Halle, 1893) ; Gilbert, The Student's Life of Jesus (New York, 1896); Réville, Jésus de Nazareth (Paris, 1897); Rhees, The Life of Jesus of Nazareth (New York, 1901); O. Holtzmann, Leben Jesu (Leipzig, 1901); Didon, Jesus Christ (trans., New York, 1901); Fouard, The Christ the Son of God (trans., London, 1890). (2) For Jewish background: Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (Eng. trans., New York, 1896); Baldensperger, Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen seiner Zeit (Strassburg, 1892). (3) For history of the land: G. A. Smith, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land (New York, 1896). (4) For teachings of Jesus: Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu (Eng. trans. of 2d vol. only, Edinburgh, 1892); Dalman, Die Worte Jesu (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1902). JESUS COLLEGE. A college of Cambridge University. It was founded in 1496 by John Alcock, Bishop of Ely, on the site, and in part with the property, of the nunnery of Saints Mary and Rhadegunde, which dated from 1133, and had become bankrupt in revenues, reputation, and numbers. The buildings of the college, which date from the twelfth to the nineteenth century, are among the most attractive in Cambridge, comprising as they do the old nunnery buildings and church, as well as the later collegiate additions. The almost monastic seclusion of the college and its quiet charm well warrant to-day the title bestowed on it by James I., Musarum Cantabrigiensium Museum, the house of the Cambridge muses. The college consisted, in 1902, of a master, 16 fellows, and 32 scholars, with college officials and some 85 undergraduates. It presents to 16 livings. Among the worthies of Jesus College are Archbishops Cranmer, Bancroft, and Sterne, Bishops Pearson, Fox, and Fisher, John Strype, John Bale, Laurence Sterne, and S. T. Coleridge. See CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF. JESUS COLLEGE. A college of Oxford University. It was the first college founded after the Reformation, and owes its establishment to Dr. Hugh ap Rice, or Price, who in 1571 was granted a charter for its foundation by Queen Elizabeth. Later the Queen added a gift of part of the land on which the college now stands, and timber from the royal forests, and took the title of founder. The college was intended for Welsh students, who still form the largest part of its membership, and it has always been closely associated with Wales and the Welsh marches. The earls of Pembroke are its hereditary visitors. The college was greatly increased in the seventeenth century by the benefactions and influence of two of its masters. The first of these, Sir Eubule Thellwall, obtained a new charter from James I., added in 1621 to the buildings, and doubled the endowment. The second was the distinguished diplomat Sir Leoline Jenkins, who became master of the college in 1661, and added greatly to its resources by bequest in 1685. buildings, chiefly of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, have been restored since 1850, and are now very attractive. The library is rich in scarce books and manuscripts, particularly those connected with the history and literature of Wales. See OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Its JET (OF. jet, jaet, jayet, gayet, Fr. jayet, jais, from Lat. gagates, Gk. yayarns, gagatēs, jet, from Tayns, Gages, Tayar, Gagai, a town and river of Lycia, in Asia Minor, where the mineral abounded). A black variety of bituminous coal that is easily cut and carved, and takes a high polish. It occurs at various places in Bavaria, Bohemia; Aude, France; Germany; near Villaviciosa, Spain; also in the Tertiary clays along the coast of Yorkshire, England, especially at Whitby, where it is found mixed with fragments of bituminized wood of coniferous trees in the upper lias or alum shale of that district. Owing to the high polish that it takes, it is extensively used as material for dress-trimmings and mourning jewelry. Among the Greeks it was considered a remedy for toothache when powdered and mixed with wine, and was applied, with beeswax, to tumors. Popular belief attributed to it a power of revealing faithlessness. JETSAM (corrupted form of jetson, jettison). Goods which go down with the ship on which they are carried, or which are cast overboard from a vessel in peril of storm or capture, and then sink and do not come to the surface. See FLOTSAM; DERELICT; WRECK. JETTISON (OF. getaison, gettaison, from Lat. jactatio, a throwing, from jactare, frequentative of jacere, to throw). In maritime law, the throwing overboard of a ship's cargo, either in whole or in part, in cases of necessity, so as to lighten the vessel in a storm, or to prevent capture, or for other justifiable cause. The power to jettison a cargo is lodged by the law in every master of a ship while upon the high seas and in extremity of danger. The loss sustained by the sacrifice does not fall upon the master, nor upon the owners of the vessel, but primarily upon the owner of the cargo. But as he is sacrificed for the general good, he is entitled by the doctrine of general average to a pro rata contribution from the several persons interested in the ship, freight, and cargo, though there are exceptions to this rule, where the goods were carried on deck. When the goods sacrificed by jettison have been insured, the insurer has the benefit of this contribution or average pro tanto. AVERAGE, IN MARITIME LAW. See tidal waters across a bar at the mouth of a harbor, maintains a channel whose cross-sectional area is proportioned to the volume of water passing through it. Hence, if the natural channel is narrowed by jetties, or, in other words, if its width is diminished, the flowing waters will secure the necessary cross-sectional area by increasing the depth until the area lost by the decreased width is regained by the increased depth and equilibrium is again restored. Jetties have been constructed at the mouths of many rivers, as the Danube, Tampico, Mississippi, and FIG. 1. MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF JETTIES FOR SOUTHWEST PASS OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. JETTY (OF. jetee, getee, Fr. jetée, p.p. of OF. jetter, jeter, Fr. jeter, to throw, from Lat. jactare, frequentative of jacere, to throw). An embankment or pier extending into the sea and built of earth, stone, fascines, timber, or other suitable material. Jetties are applied to rivers and tidal harbors to increase the depth over bars by narrowing the channel and thus concentrating the current. The current of a river flowing through an alluvial bed, or the ebb and flow of Columbia, and at the entrances of many harbors, as Dunkirk and Calais in France, Charleston, S. C., and Galveston, Tex. There are also notable examples of jetty construction at Yaquina Bay, Wilmington Harbor, Humboldt Bay, Coos Bay, and the Coquille River, all on the Pacific coast of the United States. MISSISSIPPI JETTIES. It is well known that the Mississippi River makes its way to the Gulf of Mexico through three great branches or passes. 130 Pilot SEA CANE Town: 140 On the extreme left to the east lies Pass à l'Outre, about 14 miles in length to land's end. In the middle lies South Pass, which, before its improvement, was about 12 miles long. On the right, to the west, lies Southwest Pass, about 17 miles to land's end. In 1875 Congress authorized Capt. James B. Eads to improve the South Pass by the construction of two parallel jetties. The depth between the jetties was required by the contract to be 30 feet, and the width of the channel was required to be 350 feet. The east jetty was made 11,800 feet long from land's end to 30 feet of water in the Gulf; the west jetty was 7800 feet long, and was built 1000 feet from the east jetty and generally parallel with it. The first work was to drive a row of piles spaced 12 feet apart to mark the inner lines of the two jetties. These piles served to guide the operations of sinking the mattresses and were not intended to give strength to the work. The jetty structures proper consisted of several layers of willow mattresses, loaded down with stone. The first layer was composed of mattresses 100 feet long and 50 feet wide, and the succeeding layers of mattresses of the same length, but decreasing in width to the top mattress, which was 20 feet wide. Generally four courses or layers of mattresses were sufficient to bring the mattress-work to the water surface. Each mattress was composed of four layers of willow brush, which, when compressed, gave it a thickness of about two feet. The mattresses were character and variable depth of the bar channels has always caused its entrance to be held in terror by mariners and shipowners. To improve these conditions a jetty was completed in 189394. Its total length is 44 miles, which makes it the longest jetty in the world. It was constructed by sinking mattresses of brush 3 feet thick and 40 feet wide, and surmounting them by a mound or ridge of rubble-stone. From a low-water depth, generally of 19 feet to 22 feet, in shifting and uncertain channels across the bar, the depth has increased to 29 feet in a single, and, so far, permanent channel. YAQUINA BAY JETTIES. Yaquina Bay is a narrow estuary some 20 miles long, situated on the Oregon coast 115 miles south of the Columbia River. In its natural condition the harbor throat lay between a rocky headland on the north and a low sandy point on the south. The channel discharged into the ocean over a low sandy bar, and was narrow, uncertain of alignment and depth, and bordered by sands upon which there were constant breakers. The plan of improvement finally adopted consisted of two jetties starting at the harbor throat, about 2300 feet apart, and converging to a distance apart of 1000 feet; the north jetty being 2300 feet long and the south jetty 2600 feet long. Both jetties are rubble-stone mounds. In the case of the south jetty, which rests on sand, the rubble mound is supported on a brush mattress about 4 feet thick, but the mound of the north jetty Random Stone M.H.Water M.L.Water FIG. 2. TYPICAL CROSS-SECTIONS OF EAST JETTY FOR SOUTHEASTERN PASS OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. rests on bed rock. The result of the work was to secure a permanent channel 14 feet to 15 feet deep in place of the original variable channel about 7 feet deep. built on launching ways on shore, towed into position behind the guide-piles, and sunk by loading them with stone. After the mattress-work was thoroughly settled, the sea end of each jetty was surmounted by a capping of concrete blocks. ATLANTIC AND GULF COAST JETTIES. Among Since the original construction the jetties have the harbors on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of been considerably added to and repaired. In the United States, where jetties have been com1899 the United States Army Engineers sub- pleted or are in process of construction, are the mitted plans for the construction of jetties at following: Charleston, S. C., two converging the mouth of the Southwest Pass of the Missis- jetties consisting of a brush mattress foundation sippi River, but no actual work had been begun and a rubble-stone mound, about 15,000 feet long at the end of 1900. A résumé of this proposed each; Saint John's River, Florida, two jetties improvement and of the previous work on the South Pass by William Starling, United States beginning on the opposite sides of the river Engineer Corps, was published in Engineering mouth and converging to a width apart of about News (New York) of August 23 and October 4, 1600 feet, at the ridge of the fan-shaped bar 1900, and from this the accompanying cuts are which obstructs the entrance, and thence runabstracted. See MISSISSIPPI RIVER. ning parallel as far as it may be necessary to extend them; Sabine Pass, Tex., two approximately parallel jetties about 17,000 feet and 15,000 feet long, respectively; Galveston, Tex., two COLUMBIA RIVER JETTY. The Columbia River, ever since its discovery in 1792, has been the chief harbor of the Pacific Northwest, but the shifting converging jetties about 35,000 feet and two 25,000 feet long, respectively. EUROPEAN JETTY WORK. Jetty_construction has been successfully employed in Europe at the mouths of the Danube, Vistula, Oder, Neva, and other rivers. These works have in each case re sulted in material improvements in the depths of the channel. In general design and construction they differ only in special details from similar work in America under corresponding conditions. See HARBOR; BREAKWATER. JEU DE PAUME, zhẽ de pôm (Fr., tennis), HALL OF THE. A famous building in Versailles, in which the members of the Third Estate in June, 1789, met after finding the assembly room closed against them. The hall contains a great painting by David depicting the taking of the celebrated oath of the Tennis Court. JEUNESSE DORÉE, zhẽ'nĕs' do'râ', LA (Fr., gilded youth). A name given to a political party in Paris during the French Revolution. It consisted of young men who, under the leadership of Fréron, endeavored to bring about a counterrevolution after the fall of Robespierre. The party was also nicknamed the Muscadins (scented darlings), and Petits Maîtres (elegants). The term and its English equivalent, gilded youths,' is commonly applied at present to the idle rich young men about town that are found in every great city. See INCROYABLES. JEV'ONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-82). An English economist, born in Liverpool. He was a grandson of William Roscoe, the eminent historian, educated at University College, London, and made a fellow of his college in 1862. He held a position in the Sydney (Australia) mint, 185459. In 1866 he received the appointment of professor of logic and mental and moral philosophy, and Cobden lecturer in political economy in Owens's College, Manchester; in 1872 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1876 received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh. During the latter year he was appointed professor of political economy in University College, London. Failing health caused him to relinquish his Manchester professorship in 1881. In the following year he was drowned while bathing at Bexhill, Sussex. Few writers of recent years have had a wider influence. His "Treatise on Logic" substitutes for the familiar conceptions a mathematical foundation of the syllogism, which has been widely adopted by later writers. Among theoretical economists he is most widely known by his Theory of Political Economy, which develops the theory of marginal utility which has occupied a conspicuous place in writings of later theorists. His ability was many sided, and he is best known to general readers by his Investigations in Currency and Finance, his Money and the Mechanism of Exchange, and especially by his work on the Coal Question, which at the time of its publication (1865) set all England in a ferment. The thesis of the work was the dependence of England upon coal, the approaching exhaustion of its deposits, and the gradual decline of English preeminence in the industrial world. Jevons's contributions to practical questions in the scientific journals were very numerous, and his name is identified with the literature of crises, railroads, prices, and statistics in addition to the topics already indicated. JEWEL. See GEMS. JEW'EL, JOHN (1522-71). A prominent English churchman of the time of Elizabeth. He was born in the Parish of Berimber or Berrynarbor, Devonshire, May 24, 1522. While a student at Oxford, he was led to favor reformed doctrines, and for openly inculcating them he was deprived of a fellowship at Corpus Christi on Mary's accession in 1553. Later he was induced to sign adherence to a form of doctrine essentially Roman Catholic, but he repented of his act, and in 1555 fled to Frankfort, where he abjured his recantation. He lived at Strassburg and Zurich until Elizabeth's accession, when he returned to England (1559), was one of eight Protestant divines appointed by the Queen to dispute with a similar number of Roman Catholics, and in 1560 was made Bishop of Salisbury. In 1562 he published his work in defense of the English Church, Apologia Ecclesiæ Anglicana, which was condemned by the Council of Trent. lated into English the same year, and by Elizabeth's order a copy was placed in every parish church. Thomas Harding published An Answer to Doctor Jewel's Challenge (1564), to which Jewel replied (1565); then Harding published a Confutation of an Apology (1565), and was answered by Jewel in a Defense of the Apology (1567). He died at Monkton Farleigh, September 23, 1571. His complete works were issued with memoir, by Featley (London, 1609); by Ayre with memoir, for the Parker Society (4 vols., Cambridge, 1845-50); and by Jelf (8 vols., Oxford, 1848). Consult his biography by Le Bas (London, 1935). It was trans JEW'ELL, MARSHALL (1825-83). An American politician, born in Winchester, N. H. After receiving a common school education, he learned the tanning business in a belting manufactory established by his father at Hartford, Conn., learned telegraphy, and after several years as a telegraph operator in the South and West, he re turned to Hartford in 1850 and became a member of his father's firm. He accumulated a large fortune, became interested in numerous business enterprises and in Republican State politics, and after being the unsuccessful candidate for Governor in 1868, was elected in 1869. Defeated for reëlection in 1870, he was again successful in 1871. In 1873 he was sent by President Grant as Minister to Russia, whence he was recalled in the following year to take the portfolio of Postmaster-General in Grant's Cabinet. capacity he served until July, 1876, when he resigned in consequence of a disagreement with the President over the action of Secretary Benjamin H. Bristow (q.v.) in connection with the In 1880 he opposed 'Whisky Ring' frauds. Grant's renomination, and as Chairman of the Republican National Committee, conducted the Garfield campaign. In this JEWELL, THEODORE FRELINGHUYSEN (1844 ). An American naval officer, born at Georgetown, D. C. He graduated at the Naval Academy in 1864; served in defenses of Washington in the summer of 1863. Jewell commanded at the Naval Torpedo Station (1890-93); was superintendent at the naval gun factory up to 1896, and commanded the Minneapolis in the war with Spain, and the Brooklyn in the Philippine Islands. In 1898 he was promoted to the rank of captain. |