JAPANESE LITERATURE.

ters, is the most important member of this group and perhaps the most important work produced in Japan. It has been called the Bible of the Japanese, although it contains neither doctrine nor ethics. It is a mass of loosely connected and fragmentary legends and annals, setting forth the history of the world, that is Japan, from the Divine Age, the beginning. Its first trustworthy date is in the middle of the fifth century A.D., but its materials become scanty in proportion to their historic trustworthiness. The book, how ever, contains most valuable matter for the critical scholar, being his most important source for the reconstruction of ancient Japan. Even in the eighth century Japan was feeling the mighty influence of the Chinese civilization, and thenceforth scholars studied its language and literature, while they left pure Japanese to romance and poetry and trifles, the amusement of women, and of men in their lighter moods. Archaic Japanese, already unintelligible, gave way to classical forms, and women furnished the models of literary style. This literature reached its culmination in the capital, Kioto, in the ninth and tenth centuries. It reflects the elegant, trifling, and immoral life of the Court in romances which show the customs and manners of the period accurately and tediously. The novels are strings of incidents without unity or attention to the relation of character to event, with supernatural marvels interspersed, and palace intrigue as the chief interest. The poetry is more at tractive from its curious unlikeness to other verse. It has neither rhyme nor quantity nor parallelism, but consists simply of alternate lines of five and seven syllables, the usual 'poem' containing thirty-one syllables in all, two pairs of five and seven, with a final seven added. A few poems are longer, and a later form restricts the syllables still more severely to seventeen. But even within these narrow limits room is found for 'pillow words,' mere ornaments without significance used as 'rests' for other words. The subjects are as few as the syllables, birds, flowers, mountains, the moon, the rain, and snow, the autumn leaves, the wind and other themes associated with them. Often the verse merely hints a picture which the reader's imagination must complete. There are travels, too, and diaries, and miscellanies filled with reflections and fancies.

After the tenth century few additions of value

were made to this literature. It continued to be cultivated, but it revolved around the same trite subjects, imitated the same models, and was capable of no further development. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a group of scholars attempted to revive the ancient faith, Shinto, in its pure form. As a part of their endeavor they wrote in pure Japanese, attempting to exclude all Chinese elements, but the literary fashion never extended very far, nor did it produce important results. In modern times a vast formless literature has been created for the masses, for the greater part novels, in the colloquial or in a simple written style paying little attention to the canons of classical Japanese literature. Natrally it is ignored by educated men.

Doubtless even the first collections of traditions and rituals were made because Chinese influence was already powerful, and they were put in written form only by the aid of Chinese ideographs, Buddhism won Japan in the sixth and seventh centuries A.D., and brought with it

JAPANESE LITERATURE. Chinese civilization. Henceforth Chinese literature in form and matter was supreme. The Koji-ki was given its written form in archaic Japanese in the year A.D. 712, and it was followed in the year 720 by the Nihongi, which covered much the same ground, but was written in Chinese. As Rome in language, ideals, philosophy, law, and literature ruled Europe in the Middle Ages, so did China influence Japan. The Chinese classics were the models of style, as they were the unquestioned authority in religion and morals. Buddhism brought its voluminous works, historical, doctrinal, sectarian, polemic, exegetical, philosophical, with it, and the Japanese set themselves to master and appropriate these riches. Nothing new of importance was produced, if we except, possibly, the canonical writings of the Shin sect, which is accounted heretical by all the rest, and as a matter of fact denies what Buddha affirmed and for the most part affirms what he denied. From the twelfth century until nearly the end of the sixteenth Japan was tormented by feudal strife. Letters were cultivated by monks, and even in the seventeenth century it required an argument to persuade the higher classes that letters were for others besides priests. With the final restoration of peace under the Tokugawa family (1603-1868), there was a revival of learning. China again gave the impulse, but it was no longer the Buddhistic China of the sixth century, for the literati had by this time rejected the Indian faith, and had set forth Confucianism as a fully developed philosophy and cosmogony. Introduced into Japan in the beginning of the seventeenth century, this was thenceforth the religion of the higher classes, and Buddhism was left to priests, women, and the ignorant masses. But, as before, Japan added little to the controlling ideas of the new learning. It imported the varying schools of Chinese thought, fought over anew the same battles with the same arguments and illustrations, but there was no native development. Chinese language, history, literature, and poetry furnished models which satisfied all literary needs. Yet it was not mere copying, nor was the change wholly superficial, for and these are shown in their respective literatures, the two empires are animated by different spirits so that Sinico-Japanese is entitled to a place by itself and is something more than a mere branch of the greater literature of its more original neighbor.

Again in the present age Japanese literature has undergone a transformation. The style itself has changed, though still held in the bondage of the Sinico-Japanese, but newspapers and reviews with the popularization of knowledge no longer permit the maintenance of the rigid standards of the past. Besides, the acquaintance with the whole range of Chinese literature which the older forms presupposed no longer exists except for specialists. As in the seventeenth century the orthodox Confucian philosophy supplanted the earlier Buddhist teaching, so now have Chinese literature and history given way before the his tory, philosophy, ethics, theology, romance, poetry, and, above all, science of the Occident. Judging from the past, we may expect vigorous assimilation of Western literature, and its transformation into forms congenial to this people, who, hospitable to ideas from foreign lands, know how to impress themselves upon the im

JAPANESE LITERATURE.

portations and amid all changes to preserve the spirit of Old Japan.

Consult: The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan (Yokohama, 1874-98; London, 1898 et seq.); Chamberlain, The Classical Poetry of the Japanese (London, 1880); Aston, History of Japanese Literature (New York, 1899); Mitford, Tales of Old Japan (6th ed., London, 1890). JAPANESE MUSIC. The music of Japan is almost identical in form with that of China. From the fifth century, when Korean musicians introduced the stronger, more elaborate type, Chinese music has dominated, except in the temples where the priests still preserve the older forms. The only instruments indigenous to the island are the 'Yamato' koto, and the 'Yamato' flute. The few others employed are merely softened modifications of Chinese instruments. From time immemorial the national music has been handed down by certain chosen families, and it is this spirit of conservatism as much as the poverty of their musical instruments which has prevented any original development in Japanese music. In addition they are hampered by a lack of systematized notation, a scale derived from the Chinese, and the unvaried use of common time. The most noticeable characteristics are, an extensive use of chromatics, the monotony of their melodies, and the prevalence of the minor key. It is of interest to note that the national hymn was composed by an emperor and written by an empress in the seventh century. For a general view of Japanese music, consult Piggott, Music of Japan (London, 1893). See also CHINESE MUSIC.

JAPANESE PERSIMMON. See PERSIM

MON.

JAPANESE ROBIN. A dealer's name for one of the East Indian hill-tits (q.v.), frequently kept as a cage-bird.

JAPANESE SPANIEL. See SPANIEL. JAPANNING. The art of giving a coating of varnish and other materials to certain manufactures, by which a glossy surface is produced, which in the best works resembles the beautiful lacquered wares of Japan and China.

JARDIN D'ACCLIMATATION.

monly designated as such. In Gen. ix. 25-27, Japheth represents a section of Palestine-probably Phoenicia. In view of this it is plausible to assume some connection between Japheth and the Phoenician port Joppa, which existed already at the time of the Egyptian supremacy in Western Asia. Joppa signifies 'beauty,' and Japheth can be derived from the same stem.

JAPHET IN SEARCH OF A FATHER. A novel by Captain Marryat (1836). It is the story of a foundling, telling his adventures in trying to find his father, who turns out to be a testy old East Indian officer.

JAPICX, yä'piks, GYSBERT (1603-66). A Frisian poet, born at Bolsward. His father was a burgomaster, and the son after an excellent education became schoolmaster at Bolsward (1634). In his hands the West Frisian dialect again became a literary tongue. From the French he translated in prose several poems, and he also published versions of the Psalms. His own writing was marked by originality, feeling, and lyric beauty. The Friesche Rymlerye was first published in 1668; the edition of Epkema (Leeuwarden, 1821) is supplemented by a grammar and vocabulary (ib., 1825). Consult: Halbertsma, Hulde aan Gysbert Japiks (Bolsward and Leeuwarden, 1824-27).

JAPURÁ, zhä'poo-rä'. A river in Colombia

and Brazil. See YAPURÁ.

JAQUENETTA, jăk ́ê-nět'tà. A country girl, Love's Labour's Lost. the object of Armado's love, in Shakespeare's

JAQUES, jāks or jäks, on the stage often pronounced jā'kwēz, Fr. pron. zhåk. (1) A contemplative character in Shakespeare's As You Like it ('the melancholy Jaques'). (2) A son of Sir Rowland de Bois in As You Like It. miser in Ben Jonson's The Case is Altered.

(3) A

JARARACA, zhä'rå-rä'kå (Port., from the native name). A venomous crotaline serpent (Lachesis jararaca), widely distributed over tropical South America, and closely related to, if not identical with, the bushmaster (q.v.) or labaria, which it resembles in colors and manner

He

JARCKE, yär'ke, KARL ERNST (1801-52). A German jurist and conservative publicist. was born at Danzig and studied at Bonn and Göttingen. In 1824 in Cologne he became a member of the Roman Catholic Church after having been professor at Bonn. At Berlin in 1825 he became connected with the university as lecturer, and founded the Politisches Wochenblatt.

In

1832 he went to Vienna as Court and State

Councilor, and as instructor of the Princes of Nassau. Among Jarcke's works are: Handbuch des gemeinen Strafrechts (1827-30); Die franzö sische Revolution von 1830 (1831, anonymously);

K. L. Sand und sein an Kotzebue verübter Mord (1831); Die ständische Verfassung und die deutschen Konstitutionen (1834); and Vermischte Schriften (1839-54). With Phillips and Görres he founded in 1839 Historisch-politische Blätter.

JARDIN D'ACCLIMATATION, zhär'dan' då'kle'må'tà'syôn' (Fr., garden of acclimatization). A garden of fifty acres forming part of the Bois de Boulogne in Paris, designed to acclimatize foreign plants and animals suitable for domestic or ornamental purposes. It contains, besides buildings for the various animals, a per

manent exhibition of articles connected with gardening, a dairy, an aquarium, greenhouses, an aviary, a winter garden, establishments for fattening poultry and rearing carrier pigeons, and several cafés. The garden, which was greatly damaged in 1871 during the siege of Paris, is a favorite resort.

JARDIN DES PLANTES, då plänt (Fr., garden of plants). A botanical and zoological garden in Paris, founded at the beginning of the seventeenth century. It was at first called Jardin du Roi.

JARDINE, järʼdin, Sir WILLIAM (1800-74). A Scottish naturalist, born in Edinburgh, and educated at its university. He succeeded his father in the baronetcy at the age of twenty. Ornithology was the first of the natural sciences to claim his attention, but he went on to the study of fishes, monkeys, felidæ, pachyderms, and ruminants, writing himself fourteen volumes on these subjects and on birds in a series of books which he edited called The Naturalist's Library (40 vols., 1833-45). Sir William made a collection representing 6000 species of birds, was a commissioner on the salmon fisheries, member of the British Association, and author of a Calendar of Ornithology (1849); The Ichnology of Annandale (1853); British Salmonida (1861); and The Birds of Great Britain and Ireland (4 vols., 1876).

JARDIN MABILLE, zhär'dăn' må'bêl'. A former very popular resort in Paris, founded in 1840 by a dancer, Mabille. It was a favorite gathering-place of the demi-monde, and with its brilliant illuminations, fountains, flower-beds, and other attractions, became one of the cele brated sights of Paris. The Mabille introduced many novelties in dances, among them the cancan, brought in by Chicard. The place was closed in 1875, and its clientage was absorbed by other similar resorts.

JARLEY, MRS. A character in Dickens's Old Curiosity Shop, proprietor of a wax-works show, who befriends Little Nell.

JARNAC, zhär'nåk'. A town in the Department of Charente, France, known as the scene of a battle fought on March 13, 1569, between 26.000 Catholics under the Duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III., and 15,000 Huguenots under Louis, Prince of Condé. The latter were completely routed and their leader was killed. See HUGUENOTS.

JARNDYCE, järn'dis, JOHN. A kind-hearted character in Dickens's Bleak House, a principal in the famous Chancery suit of Jarndyce vs. Jarndyce. The suit is intended as a satire on Court of Chancery methods.

JARO, Häʼro. A town of Leyte, Philippines, situated in the northern part of the island, 15 miles west by south of Tacloban (Map: Philip pine Islands, J 8). Population, in 1898, 9482. JAROCHOWSKI, vả′rô-Kðyshe KAZIMIR (1829-88). A Polish historian, born at Sokolniki, and educated at Posen and Berlin. He took part in the Polish uprising of 1848, but in 1862 entered the Prussian magistracy, and resigned in 1882. He died soon after his election to the Prussian Diet. His historical studies deal especially with Poland under the Saxon kings. Among them the more important are: Teka Podoskiego (1854-61); Wielkopolska

w czasie pierwszej wojny szwedzkiej (1864); Dzieje panowania Augusta II. (1856-74); Opowiadania i studia (1860-84); and Literatura posnaúska (1880).

JAROSLAU, yä'ro-slou'. The capital of a district of Galicia, Austria, and an important garrison town on the San, an affluent of the Vistula, 130 miles east of Cracow by rail (Map: Austria, H 1). It is an industrial centre, with manufactures of textiles, pottery, bricks, tutty, and spirituous liquors. There is also a considerable trade in agricultural produce, hides, and lumber. Population, in 1890, 18,065; in 1904, 22,614.

JAROSLAV, yä'rô-släf'. A Russian government and its capital. See YAROSLAV.

JARRIC, zhȧ'rêk', LOUIS ETIENNE, Chevalier de (1757-91). A West Indian revolutionist, born at Aux Cayes, Haiti. He had no legitimate claim to the name he bore; but his father had him well educated, and he was in France at the time of the Revolution, serving as a captain. A mulatto himself, he started a society in Paris called Friends of the Blacks, but it did not flourish, so he sailed for Haiti in 1790 with a supply of arms. These he distributed among the disaffected negroes, and he headed a band of 700 which, through a victory over the regulars, was increased to 2500; but they were defeated near the river Saint Vincent, and Jarric was tortured to death.

JAR'ROW-ON-TYNE. A municipal borough and seaport in Durham, England, on the estuary of the Tyne, 52 miles east of Newcastle (Map: England, E 2). Formerly a small colliery vil lage, it was made a municipality in 1875. Its growth was due to the establishment of large iron ship-building and marine-engine works, blastfurnaces, iron-foundries, gun, paper, and chemical factories. It makes extensive shipments of coal. On the banks of Jarrow Lake are the Tyne docks, with quays, etc., covering about 300 acres. The town maintains quays, an infectious-diseases hospital, and recreation-grounds. The Venerable Bede was born in Jarrow, and lived, and wrote, and died in the Benedictine monastery built there in 682, of which there are remains. Population, in 1891, 33,700; in 1901, 34,300.

JARVES, jär'věs, JAMES JACKSON (182088). An American author and art collector, born in Boston. He made an extensive tour in South America and the Pacific Islands, and resided at Honolulu for a number of years. After he left Honolulu he was in charge of various Government missions. In 1851 he went to Europe, and afterwards settled in Florence, where from 1879 until 1882 he was vice-consul

and acting consul. He spent much time making

a collection of objects of art, and was successrepresentative paintings of the different Euroful in bringing together a number of fairly pean schools. His collection of Venetian glass is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City, and the pictures and sculptures are divided be tween the Art School of Yale University and the Hollenden Gallery, Cleveland, Ohio. His publications include: Parisian Sights and French Principles (1853); Art Hints, Architecture, Sculp ture, and Painting (1855); Kiana: A Tradition of Hawaii (1855); Italian Sights and Papal Principles. Seen Through American Spectacles (1855); Confessions of an Enquirer (1857 and

1869); Art Studies: The Old Masters of Italy (1861); The Art Idea, Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture in America (1866); Art Thoughts: The Experiences and Observations of an Amateur in Europe (1869); Glimpses at the Art of Japan (1876); and Italian Rambles (1884).

JAR'VIS, ABRAHAM (1739-1813). A Protestant Episcopal bishop of Connecticut. He was born at Norwalk, graduated at Yale in 1761, and was ordained in England three years after wards. He became rector of Christ Church, Middletown, was regarded as a Tory sympathizer because of his opposition to the independence of the American Church during the Revolution, and in 1797 became second Bishop of Connecticut. JARVIS, EDWARD (1803-84). A physician, born at Concord, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1826 and at the Harvard Medical College in 1830, and subsequently practiced as a physician successively in Concord, Mass., Louisville, Ky., and Dorchester, Mass. He interested himself in the collection of vital statistics, and published reports and monographs on this subject, among which are: Physiology and Health; Elementary Physiology; Reports on the Number and Condition of the Insane and Idiots in Massachusetts. He was for many years after 1852 president of the American Statistical Association.

JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY (1780-1840). An American portrait painter, born in South Shields, England. He was a nephew and namesake of the famous divine, who kept him till he was five years old, and then sent him to join his seafaring father in Philadelphia. The lad grew up with little training, but on developing a taste for art he was encouraged in his career by Malbone and other celebrated painters. He had a studio in New York, but went South for the winters. His principal portraits of statesmen, churchmen, and naval heroes (1812-15)-are in the City Hall, New York, and in the collection of the New York Historical Society. Jarvis was a conspicuous example of the artistic temperament-improvident, witty, eccentric, vain, cbservant, a noted story-teller, practical joker, and convivial spirit, whose work was often carelessly left to pupils to finish. He has been considered the pioneer of art anatomy in the United States. He died in poverty.

An

JARVIS, SAMUEL FARMER (1786-1851). American clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, the son of Abraham Jarvis. He was born at Middletown, Conn.; graduated at Yale in 1805, was ordained in 1810, and three years afterwards became rector of Saint James's, New York. After a year in the chair of biblical criticism in the General Theological Seminary, he was rector of Saint Paul's, Boston (1820-26), then traveled and studied in Europe, and lived in Italy until 1835, when he was appointed professor of Oriental literature at Trinity (then Washington) College. As historiographer of the Episcopal Church in America, Jarvis wrote A Chronological Introduction to the History of the Church (1844). He published, besides: The Religion of the Indian Tribes of North America (1820); No Union with Rome (1843); and The Church of the Redeemed (1850).

JA'SHER, BOOK OF (Heb. sẽpher hay-yāshär, book of the upright, Gk. Bißlov Toû evous, biblion tou euthous, Lat. liber justorum; the

Peshitto (Syriac) version has sepher ashir, book of song or songs). One of the lost books of the Hebrews. It is mentioned twice in the Old Testament (Joshua x. 13; II. Sam. i. 18), and the Septuagint makes it probable that the words attributed to Solomon in I. Kings viii. 12, 13, are quoted from this book. All that can be stated about this lost production is that it was a collection of songs, and that the songs were probably of a national character. The two undoubted extracts preserved-(a) the command of Joshua to the sun and moon to stand still; (b) the lament over Saul and Jonathan ascribed to David--breathe a spirit which accords with other specimens of early Hebrew poetry. The name 'Book of the Upright' is difficult to understand. It may have referred to Israel, but it read yasher, he sings') really has some conis also possible that the title (perhaps to be nection with 'song,' as the Peshitto takes it. The lost book' naturally attracted forgers, and less than three different works purporting to be the lost Book of Jasher were produced, and in 1751 another, claiming to have been translated from Hebrew by 'Alcuin of Britain,' was brought forth. This excited considerable interest for a time, but eventually it was proved to be a forgery, and was traced to Ilive, a London printer. It was republished in 1827. The Book of Jasher is also the title of a ritualistic treatise by Jacob ben Meir (died 1171), and of several other works of an ethical or legal character written by Jewish scholars.

in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries no

JASMIN, zhȧs'mǎN', JACQUES (1799-1864). A Provençal poet, born March 6; 1779, at Agen, where he died, October 4, 1864. His real name was Jacques Boé. He was apprenticed to a hairdresser, who had been a soldier of Napoleon. At eighteen Jasmin was writing verses and dressing hair. Hence his name "The Barber Poet." His four collections of Papillotos or Curl-Papers (1825, 1843, 1851, 1853) were naïve little occasional verses revealing much native power. The Souvenirs (1830) are a winning mixture of humor and pathos in their tale of his early struggles for literary recognition. The Blind Girl of Castel-Cuillé (1835) is accessible in a good translation by Longfellow. Françounetto (1840), a narrative poem, is Jasmin's most sustained work, and won general recognition. Jasmin was received into the Legion of Honor in 1846. In 1852 his works were crowned by the Academy. He is the poetic father of Mistral (q.v.) and the Félibres. There is an edition of his Works, with a French translation (1860). Consult: Rabain, Jasmin, sa vie et ses œuvres (Limoges, 1867); Moutrond, Jasmin, poète d'Agen (Lille, 1875); Andrien, Vie de Jasmin (Agen, 1882); Sainte-Beuve, Portraits contemporains, vol. iii. (Paris, 1881-82). Consult: Smiles, Barber, Poet, Philanthropist (New York, 1892).

JASMINE, jǎs'min, or JESSAMINE (OF., Fr. jasmin, from Ar. yasmin, from Pers. yasmin, jasmine), Jasminum. A genus of plants, chiefly natives of the warm parts of Asia, which belong to the natural order Oleaceæ, containing about 100 species of shrubs, some of them climbing, and many of them having exquisitely fragrant flowers. This genus has the calyx and corolla each five or eight cleft, two stamens attached to and included within the tube of the white or yellow corolla, and a two-lobed berry, one of the lobes

generally abortive. The common jasmine (Jasminum officinale) is a native of the south of Asia, naturalized in the south of Europe as far north as Tyrol and Switzerland. In more northern regions it is much cultivated in gardens,

(not from the Cape) in 1754. A double variety is a very popular greenhouse plant, and is common in the Southern States as a hardy outdoor plant. It bears a large, oblong, orange-yellow berry, which is said to be used in China as a dye. JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, CAROLINA, or YELLOW. A North American climbing plant, Gelsemium sempervirens, of the order Loganiaceæ, which grows in Virginia and southward upon trees and fences, and bears a profusion of yellow, funnel-shaped flowers an inch in diam

JASMINUM GRANDIFLORUM.

but does not easily endure very severe winters. It is a shrub from 6 to 10 feet high, with pinnate leaves, the terminal leaflet the largest, and very fragrant white flowers. Its slender, deep-green branches give it the appearance of an evergreen. The flowers are used for preparing oil of jasmine, a delicate perfume. It blooms from June to October, and requires a light, moist soil to induce free flowering. Jasminum grandiflorum, Spanish or Catalonian jasmine, a native of the East Indies, has flowers still more fragrant, from which, and from those of Jasminum Sambac, oil, of jasmine is also made. Jasminum humile, a very common greenhouse variety, is hardy in the open air as far north as Maryland. The varieties of jasmine are propagated by seeds and layers, but the usual method is starting cuttings of the nearly ripened wood under glass.

CAPE JASMINE.

CAPE JASMINE is a name popularly applied to plants belonging to the genus Gardenia, not related to the true jasmines. They belong to the madder family (Rubiaceae), and are tropical and sub-tropical shrubs The genus was named for Dr. Garden, of Charleston, S. C., who was a correspondent of Linnæus. The best-known species is Gardenia jasminoides, popularly known as Gardenia florida, brought to England from China

A PENDENT SPRAY OF YELLOW JASMINE.

eter, with a fragrance similar to that of the true jasmine, the odor on a damp evening or morning being almost overpowering. It has been recently used in medicine as a sedative, antispasmodic, and nervine.

JA'SON. The leader of the Argonauts (q.v.). JASON (Gk. 'Idowv). A tyrant of Pheræ in Thessaly, the successor and the reputed son of Lycophron. He came into prominence early in the fourth century B.C., and undertook to reduce all Thessaly under his dominion. By B.C. 374 he had conquered the chief cities of Thessaly, and was recognized as Tagos. He then collected a large army with the object of making himself master of all Greece, but was assassinated in the midst of his preparations (B.c. 370).

JASON. A Jewish high priest, son of Simon II., and leader of the Hellenizing party. His real name was Jesus, according to Josephus (Ant., xxii. v. 1). In B.c. 174 he was appointed high priest in place of his brother by Antiochus IV. For this office he is said to have paid a large sum; but he also secured for the citizens of Jerusalem the rights and privileges of Antiochians, and was allowed to build a gymnasium and an ephebeum below the acropolis, near Mount Zion. Greek games, Greek caps, and Greek customs were speedily adopted. Even the priests left the altar to take part in the games in the palæstra, and artificially concealed their circumcision. Jason sent a large contribution