of 170 miles. The third great river is the Kisogawa, which pursues a devious course from Shinano, and falls into the Pacific. Another important river is the Ten-riu, which rises in Lake Suwa and flows south for 135 miles to the Pacific. Other rivers are the Sumida, flowing through Tokio into the Gulf of Yedo, and the Yodogawa, the outlet of Lake Biwa, which enters Osaka Bay. They are all swift, and spread out greatly when they leave the mountains.

Japan has few lakes of any great extent. Several shallow sheets of water are found in Yezo, and along both the east and the west sides of Hondo or Main Island, but they are of little consequence as lakes, and have little beauty. The largest and most noted is Lake Omi, better known as Biwa-ko (Ko-lake) from a fancied resemblance in shape to the Chinese guitar (p'i-pa). It lies in the centre of the Province of Omi, at no great distance from Kioto (q.v.), and is much visited by tourists on account of its 'Eight Beauties.' It is 37 miles long and 12 miles wide at the widest part, and has an area nearly equal to that of Lake Geneva in Switzerland. Northeast of this, in the Province of Shinano, is Suwa Lake, the source of the Ten-riu-gawa, 2600 feet above the level of the sea. In winter it is covered with ice more than a foot thick. Farther north, in the Nikko Mountains, is the beautiful Chiuzen-ji, at the foot of Nantai-san, with an area of nearly 18 square miles, and situated 4375 feet above sea-level. It is of great depth, and contains no fish. Farther north still is Inawashiro, near Bandai-san, with an area of perhaps 30 square miles, and situated about 1840 feet above sea-level. It abounds in fish and is said never to be frozen over. Its outlet is the Ikano-gawa, which falls into the Sea of Japan near Niigata. Another well-known lake is that of Hakone, about 50 miles west of Yokohama. It is said to fill the crater of an ancient volcano, at an elevation of 2300 feet above sea-level. It is about 10 miles long, and is of unknown depth. Its outlet is the Haya-gawa, and by a tunnel at one end it supplies water for irrigating the ricefields of 17 villages on the plain to the west.

CLIMATE. Stretching as the Empire does through nearly 30 degrees of latitude, climatic conditions vary widely in different parts. In the Loo-choo group subtropical conditions prevail; the heat is great, and snow and ice are never seen. In the Kurile Islands, on the other hand, snow and ice never entirely disappear, the sea freezes over in winter, and it is sometimes possible to pass from one island to the other on the ice. Omitting Loo-choo, the Bonin Islands, and Formosa, there is scarcely a part of the country that is entirely free from show in winter. It is heaviest in Yezo, and along that part of the main island which lies between the great mountains (which form its backbone) and the Sea of Japan; and so deeply does it cover the country that in many places, especially north of the Shinano, Hida range, the inhabitants have recourse to continuous porticoes or snow-sheds along the streets to afford passageway. To the south and east of this region the snow is somewhat less heavy, and the winter is milder, owing to the influence of the warm current known as the Kuro Shiwo (q.v). Seldom does more than a few inches of snow fall in Tokio and Yokohama, though Fujiyama, only 60 miles distant, is covered to its base. The winter temperature hardly

VOL. XI.-9.

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ever goes below 22 degrees Fahrenheit, and there are not more than three or four frosty days during the whole winter. Kiushiu, Shikoku, Sanyo-do, and Tokaido are warm, and snow seldom lies except on the higher mountains. wind is northerly and dry and the air bracing. The exceptional conditions which prevail in Yezo are due largely to the cold current-the Oyashiwo-and to the strong northeast winds which sweep down upon it from the ice-fields of Siberia. The southwest monsoon brings with it a hot, moist summer. The rainfall is great, and the heat is considerable, much greater than in corresponding latitudes in Europe and America. The rainfall is heaviest in June and September. The annual fall in Yokohama is about 70 inches; in Nagasaki, 712; in Tokio, 65.4; in Hakodate it is only 57.2. It is the great humidity which some of these figures imply, coupled with a temperature which may rise in summer to 95 degrees or 96 degrees Fahrenheit, as in Tokio and Yokohama, that causes so much discomfort, and sends to the mountain all who can get away. Yet, as compared with many places on the mainland of China, Japan is a very pleasant summering place. There is a well-equipped and well-managed Weather Bureau, with 74 meteorological stations.

FLORA. The flora of Japan is exceedingly rich in variety, and its luxuriance is in keeping with the warmth and the moisture of the Japanese summer. In 1876 Franchet and Savatier enumerated no fewer than 2743 species of phanerogamous and the higher cryptogamous plants, distributed among 1035 genera. Since then the number has been increased to over 3000. The ferns are represented by 43 species, the sedge family by 168, and the Ericaceae by 76. In the plains one meets with pimpernel, the lily of the valley, blue-bells, eye-bright, various kinds of violets, the gladiolus or sword-lily, and many species of iris, hemerocallis, etc., as well as the characteristically Japanese Lespedeza striata, or Japan clover,' with its minute purple flower, now well known throughout the Southern United States, having been introduced accidentally about 1840, perhaps in tea-chests. In April the hillsides of Japan are ablaze with azaleas.

Among trees, evergreens, of which there are said to be 150 varieties, predominate. Savatier enumerates 41 species of Coniferæ alone. One of the most characteristic of Japanese trees is the sugi, or 'Japanese cedar' (Cryptomeria japonica), which sometimes attains a height of 150 feet. It is a favorite in temple grounds, and is frequently seen lining the highways, but more particularly the approaches to some sacred place, as along the great avenue (nearly 50 miles in length) leading to the tomb of Iyeyasu at Nikko (q.v.). Another beautiful temple-tree is the Icho (Salisburia adiantifolia) or 'maiden-hair' tree. A fine specimen, said to be 1000 years old, stands near the entrance to the Temple of Hachiman at Kamakura.

The cypress and the yew, firs of different kinds, the box, the holly, and the myrtle abound. The mulberry-tree, the tea-plant, the lacquer-tree (Rhus vernicifera), the camphor-tree, and many species of bamboo not only add to the beauty of the landscape, but are of great economic value. Among deciduous trees are the oak (20 species), the maple (24 species), beeches, alders, the ash, the horse-chestnut, the birch, and 17 species of willow. The hinoki, or 'fire-cypress,' is much

prized in the making of lacquer-ware; the heyȧki, or Japanese elm (Planera japonica), in cabinet-work; and the box for combs. The hajimo-ki, or wax-tree, grows profusely on the hillsides and round the edges of the cultivated fields in Kiushiu, and the cocoa-tree, the banyan-tree, and the banana flourish in Loo-choo and the Bonins. The bud and leaves of the ornamental kiri, or Paulownia imperialis, form the badge of the Mikado. Among the climbing and twining plants are the Hydrangea cordifolia, several species of climbing magnolia, whose coils run from right to left, the Akebia quinata, the Clematis japonica, and the wistaria, which blossom in June. The plum blossoms in February; the cherry in April. The treepeony flowers about the first of May, lotuses fill the castle moats and canals in August, and in November the chrysanthemum is the occasion of perhaps the greatest of the Japanese flower festivals. Of the fruits the grape is the best, and those from the Province of Kai are most esteemed. (See KOFU.) The kaki, or persimmon, comes later in the year, and is a very luscious fruit; the oranges grown in Kiushiu are also good. The pear is woody and worthless. All attempts at introducing English and other pears have invariably proved unsuccessful. But the apple is now cultivated with good results in Yezo. The strawberry has been successfully introduced. The loquat comes in April.

FAUNA. This is not as rich as the flora, yet the country can boast of at least 150 species of mammals, 359 of birds, 300 of reptiles and batrachians, a great number of kinds of fishes, of which 358 species were described by Siebold. Also over 1200 species of mollusca are mentioned in the books; and, according to the best authorities, 26 kinds of sea-urchins, and 12 species of star-fishes are found. At the head of the mammals stands the red-cheeked saru or monkey (Inuus speciosus), which lends its name as a qualifier to the name of many a place and plant, and whose flesh is esteemed a delicacy. The saru is sometimes found as far north as the forty-first parallel of latitude, where in winter snow often lies 15 to 20 feet deep, and the thermometer registers many degrees below zero. Among the 10 species of cheiroptera peculiar to the country are several bats, and of the insect-eaters are the mugura, or Japanese mole, and several kinds of shrew-mouse. The hedgehog is unknown. The carnivora include three species of bear-the common black bear (Ursus japonicus), the 'red bear,' also called the great bear (Ursus ferox), much reverenced by the Ainos, and the ice-bear (Ursus maritimus), an involuntary visitor brought to Yezo and the Kuriles by the Arctic current. The tanuki, or badger, sometimes called the bamboo bear,' whose flesh is eaten, occurs everywhere. The tiger is known only from Chinese literature and art, while the wolf of the country, known as Yama-inu, or 'mountain dog,' is not numerous. The fox is found everywhere and, like the monkey and the badger, plays a very important part in folk-lore and the superstitions of the country. (See Fox.) Among the fur-bearing animals are the martin, the fish-otter, the sea-otter, and the itachi, or weasel. Rodents are numerous and include two species of ki-nedzumi ('tree-rats') or squirrels, two flying squirrels, and rats, which are so numerous and so much of a pest that the Japanese Government has offered rewards for their extermination. The common house-mouse is unknown.

Hares exist everywhere. Two species of deer are found.

The avifauna includes many species which are familiar in the Old World, showing very slight differences in color and size, as for instance the robin, the cuckoo, the woodpecker, the icebird, the hoopoo, and the jay. The cuckoo, however, is not very common. The sparrow, the house-swallow, and the thrush are the commonest and most numerous. Eagles, falcons, and kites are seen, as well as the wood-chat, the magpie, and the Korean raven. There are several species of singing birds, but the uguisu, or Japanese nightingale, is the most conspicuous. Blackbirds and the singing thrushes are absent. There are two species of kiji, or pheasant: the Phasianus versicolor, called yama dori, or 'mountain-bird,' by the Japanese, and the copper pheasant, or Phasianus sæmmering. Wild pigeons abound and quail and snipe are fairly abundant. The wild duck and geese also furnish many a shot for the sportsman. The crane and the silver heron are the most popular of the waders. The former, the symbol of longevity, has a prominent place in Japanese art. The latter faithfully keeps company with the peasant in the rice-fields

all summer.

The mamushi (Trigonocephalus blomhofi) is the only poisonous snake of the eight species found in Japan proper. Another, called the habu, exists in Loo-choo. The mamushi, skinned and cooked, is used as a 'nerve-strengthening' food. Four sea-snakes make their way to the southern islands in summer. Of the three species of lizard one, the ya-mori, or 'house-warden,' frequents dwellings and is an expert fly-catcher. Marine turtles, of which there are three species, are most numerous in the Bonin Islands. The kame, a river tortoise, another symbol of longevity, is one of the four supernatural creatures of Chinese and Japanese mythology. It is found as far north as Yezo, but is not common. There are several species of frogs and toads, but they differ little from those found in Europe and America. boiled and dried, enriches the Japanese pharmaThe mountain newt (Lacerta japonica), when copeia as a vermifuge. . The most remarkable of this class is the 'giant salamander,' extinct elsewhere, but still found in the rivers. It is sometimes captured for the sake of its flesh.

Insects are exceedingly numerous, both in species and individuals, and include many beautiful beetles, 137 species of butterflies, and over 100 species of moths. There are several large silkmoths, but only two are used in the silk industry. Except in the mountains the mosquito is very troublesome, and rivals the flea in persistency, but not in numbers. Flies are found everywhere, but are most numerous in the silkworm-breeding localities. Ants are numerous and troublesome, and crickets, grasshoppers, and cicadas abound. Scorpions exist, but are said to be non-poisonous.

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES. Soon after the opening of the country the Government seems to have realized the desirability of exploiting its mineral resources, which were supposed to be very extensive and of great value. To this end geologists and mining engineers were engaged abroad, and to them-Pumpelly, Lyman, and others-as well as to the explorations and observations of later geologists and travelers-Richthofen, Milne, Naumann, Rein, and Wada-the