Fire might be characterized as one of man's most important discoveries; it is also one of our most useful tools. We use it to heat our homes and our offices, to generate electricity, to power most forms of transportation, even though the bicycle is starting to make inroads, and we use it most in industrial processes. I think it is a fair statement to say that life as we know it today could not exist without fire; but along with all of these beneficial aspects of fire come some very serious side effects. In 1971, 12,000 Americans were killed by fire and over 100,000 were desperately injured by fire-related accidents. Fire takes a tremendous economic toll in the United States. In fact, it is estimated that $2.8 billion worth of property damage occurred in 1971. Now to put these statistics in perhaps a little more concrete terms, this means that by tomorrow morning, there will be 1,500 families without a home because they suffered a fire. The Bureau has been involved in fire research for a long period of time and I think has made many significant contributions. I think the program today will reveal many of these and perhaps point new directions for future activities. INTRODUCTION F. Karl Willenbrock, Director National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. Each year, The problem of destructive fire continues to plague our nation. at least 12,000 people are killed, many more seriously injured or crippled for life, and billions of dollars in property lost. The need for fire protection has become a public demand. We, at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), believe that technology can provide the public with a more fire-safe environment, one that is more fail-safe to human carelessness. For sixty years, NBS has conducted a building fire program which has provided the technical base for many fire safety codes and standards. In the past several years, however, NBS has acquired more responsibility for reducing fire losses. The Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968 greatly broadened the NBS authority. Under this legislation, NBS developed a more extensive fire program including technical support of the fire services. As a result of the 1967 amendment of the Flammable Fabrics Act, NBS, in 1968, established a flammable fabrics program and assisted in the development of a number of mandatory flammability standards such as carpets and rugs, children's sleepwear and mattresses. Although the responsibility for the development of standards under the Flammable Fabrics Act was reassigned to the Consumer Product Safety Commission by the Consumer Product Safety Act of 1972, this Act specifically directs the Commission to use NBS for research in fabric flammability and for technical assistance in developing product flammability standards. We are, therefore, working closely with the Commission in carrying out these responsibilities. Our several fire activities are unified to assure integration of building fire safety, fire services, product flammability test development, fire research, and analysis of fire accident data. We have organized these activities into programs based on the chain of events which lead to fire losses, namely, exposure of ignitable material to an ignition source; ignition of the material; and spread of fire. To minimize fire losses, we must interrupt this chain of events. Therefore, our fire programs, which are aimed at breaking the fire chain at each juncture, consist of three major elements: fire prevention, fire control, and fire suppression; with foundation activities in research and hazard analysis. The foundation activities for these programs are based on understanding real world fire problems through analysis of fire accidents (hazard analysis activity) and through research on the physical characteristics of fire, to learn why and how fire hazards exist. These activities provide a sound basis for outputs to activities such as building fire codes, fabric flammability standards, and performance criteria for fire equipment. Fire Prevention: Fire prevention is a prime area in which a major impact in saving human lives and property is possible. We have projects directed towards: encouraging the fire services to assist home owners in voluntary inspections; exploring new designs for common ignition sources, such as kitchen ranges, matches, and lighters; and providing the technical basis to the Consumer Product Safety Commission for mandatory national standards on the flammability of clothing and interior furnishings. Fire Control: Fire control can be accomplished through reduction of fire loads in buildings, through early detection and suppression of fire, and through minimization of smoke and fire movement in burning buildings. NBS has received funding to conduct a nation-wide survey of fire loads in office buildings from which a representative picture of fire loads will be developed. Once the nature of these fire loads has been more accurately determined, we will be better able to design buildings that resist the spread of fire. In automatic fire control, NBS is emphasizing smoke detectors. We have analyzed many commercial smoke detectors and recommended design changes which some manufacturers have already incorporated, producing more effective fire detectors. We are also developing recommended performance criteria for residential detectors, and exploring new approaches to early detection of fire, as well as measuring unique fire signatures to reduce false alarms. The use of sprinklers in life safety applications for residences is being explored as a further extension of the automatic detection and control concept. In addition, we are developing design criteria and flammability tests for building materials and systems leading to viable building standards for fire-safe buildings. Under development are building design standards for smoke control based on the results of full scale tests on several multi-story buildings, fire safety standards for day care centers, and a new flammability test for carpets aimed at more fire-safe corridor exits. Fire Suppression: Our fire suppression activities are in direct support of the fire services. We have tested the effectiveness of clothing and equipment for firefighters and discovered some inadequacies in protective coats, helmets, and ladders which may help reduce the dangers associated with firefighting which is one of the most dangerous of the professions. To help correct these inadequacies, we are developing performance specifications to aid firemen in selecting safe and effective equipment. We are also developing guides to enable optimum use and placement of firefighting resources, to balance specific local needs. We are also conducting a project to develop analytical tools with which a local fire chief can analyze the injuries his firefighters suffer. Based on this analysis, the Chief can decide how to modify his firefighting tactics, training, or equipment so as to reduce injuries. The Research: Research can provide valuable new solutions to old problems. NBS approach is to work on those fire problems in which new knowledge in science and technology can make a contribution to saving lives and property. Our investigation of the chemistry and physics of combustion processes could lead to improved fire retardant materials or improved fire extinguishers. The exploration of the dynamics of fires could lead to improved fire detectors and fire-safe building design. Hazard Analysis: Accurate accident data are needed on which to base our priorities and to monitor our progress. This information must be detailed enough so that its analysis can clearly indicate the cause of fires. We have, therefore, contracted for the design of a national fire loss data system which will collect data from various state and local sources to provide a true picture of the nature and causes of fire loss. As a model, the NBS Flammable Fabrics Accident Case and Testing System (FFACTS), which includes detailed data about thousands of fires involving fabrics, has guided priorities in the development of fabric flammability standards. What is the future of the fire programs at NBS? The report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, "America Burning," has resulted in the introduction of several legislative proposals in Congress for an expanded fire program. Recent hearings before the Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development of the House Committee on Science and Astronautics indicate that the Department of Commerce and NBS will be called upon to play a larger role in future fire safety programs. A new fire research laboratory is now under construction at the NBS Gaithersburg site. When completed, this laboratory will provide a modern facility for conducting large scale fire experiments. NBS is preparing for an expanded role in reducing the nation's fire losses. The papers that follow appear in the order in which they were presented at the Symposium. May I take this opportunity to express my appreciation to the authors of these papers and other participants who contributed toward making the Symposium a success, to Dr. Radford Byerly who was instrumental in the direction and initiation of the Fire Safety Research Symposium, to Dr. Clayton Huggett who graciously accepted to host the Symposium, to Mrs. Sara Torrence and Mrs. Mary Jo Butler for their help with the coordination of the Symposium, and to Mr. James Slater and Mrs. Mary Jo Butler for editing and managing the production of the Proceedings. Special thanks is due to Mrs. Carol Thompson and Mrs. Evelyn Granger for their editorial and production skills. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS SPECIAL PUBLICATION 411, Fire Safety Research, Proceedings of a Symposium Held at NBS, Gaithersburg, Md., August 22, 1973, (Issued November 1974) A COMPARISON BETWEEN POTENTIAL HAZARD REDUCTION FROM Benjamin Buchbinder and Allan Vickers Mandatory standards have been and are being promulgated for Key words: Cigarettes; education; fabric; fire; flammability; The hazard represented by fabric fire accidents may be studied from many points of view. In this paper we will look at the kinds of considerations involved in addressing the reduction of the fabric fire hazard by means of three approaches: fabric flammability standards, improved safety in ignition sources and effective public education. First, our source of data, the Flammable Fabrics Accident Case and Testing System, which we call FFACTS, provides the data for fabric fire studies at the National Bureau of Standards' (NBS) Fire Technology Division. FFACTS is a computerized data base now containing 2,660 cases, rich in detail, with over 130 data elements for each case. These data are derived from detailed case history investigations of fabric fire accidents, performed largely by Consumer Product Safety Commission contractors and Food and Drug Administration field investigators, augmented by laboratory analysis, at NBS, of fabric samples submitted with the reports. The detailed data in FFACTS permit the identification of patterns of accident parameters which define different accident types. parameters encompass both fire characteristics and human involvement. These In this paper, four FFACTS data elements have been used, namely fabric item first to ignite, ignition source, age of victim and sex of victim, to examine the kinds of considerations inherent in choosing a course of action for hazard reduction. Other Fire Technology Division studies encompass additional FFACTS data elements including victim's activity prior to ignition and reaction after ignition, injury and economic loss and test data from fabric sample laboratory analysis. The purposes of these studies range from the development of hazard related test methods for flammability standards to an investigation of the causal relationship of human activities to injury severity. In order to discuss the pros and cons of the three approaches to hazard reduction, let us first define several hazards in terms of our four data elements. For purposes of this discussion, a hazard is defined as a combination of ignition source, human involvement and flammable material with a high probability of injury. Table 1, based on the data base level of 1,964 cases, shows the number of cases in FFACTS for which sleepwear; shirts and blouses and upholstered furniture were the first fabric item types to ignite. (This "first-to-ignite" criterion is useful in determining the most important item involved in a fire accident, when more than one fabric item is involved.) The incidence of sleepwear cases was primarily among females, the shirt/blouse category incidence was |