chemical (CO2, nitrogen) regimes, including the influence of changing disturbance conditions (wind, drought, fire, pest frequencies). Because the direction and magnitude of possible climatic change is not known for all factors relevant to ecosystem dynamics, simulations and experimental studies should focus upon a broad range of such conditions. The potential rate of species migration (either assisted or unassisted) needs to be investigated further using appropriate models. A significant part of this activity should be devoted to further development of monitering strategies that would allow the collection of data on realistic forest responses through all major forest regions. Monitoring. The development and application of forest models requires improved global databases on the present conditions of the world's forests, as well as their associated site characteristics. It is crucial that these data-gathering activities are intensified, both through the global network of ground observations that can be made in many research institutes worldwide and through the collection of data from spaceborne sensors. For ground-based data collection, standardization and worldwide availability are key issues, as is the continuation of already ongoing observational series. Satellite remote sensing is in a promising stage of development, with respect to both enhanced processing protocols of existing time series of satellite data (such as AVHRR) and the development of sensors with improved capacity to measure ecosystem properties at high spatial and temporal resolution.

To improve the overall modeling framework for the assessment of global forest response to climate change, and to provide an appropriate background for the synthesis of more detailed studies, there is a requirement for process-based terrestrial biosphere models of ecosystem dynamics. These models should build on knowledge from all other levels of model development. Specifically, they should involve a sufficiently high number of plant functional types and forest types to cover the wide range of forests occurring in different climate zones. Various initiatives for the development of such models are currently underway (e.g.. Focus 2: Change in Ecosystem Structure, especially activity 2.3. in Steffen et al., 1992; Landsberg et al., 1995). To succeed, they need to be backed up by the research activities listed above.

References

Addison, PA, 1991: Atmospheric pollution and forest effects. Revue Forestiere Francaise, 10(Hors Serie No. 2), 307-315.

Alcamo, J., 1994: IMAGE 2.0: integrated modeling of global climate change Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 7641/2), 1-321.

Allen, L.H., 1990: Plant responses to rising carbon dioxide and potential interactions with air pollutants. Journal of Environmental Quality. 19, 15-34. Andreae, M.O. and J.G. Goldammer, 1992. Tropical wildland fires and other biomass burning environmental impacts and implications for land-use and fire management. In: Conservation of West and Central African Rainforests [Cleaver, K. et al. (eds.)]. Abidjan Conference on West Africa's Forest Environment, 5-9 November 1990. The World Bank,

Climate Change Impacts on Forests

Apps, M.J., WA. Kurz, R.J. Luxmoore, LO. Nilsson, R.A. Sedjo, R. Schmidt, L.G. Simpson, and T.S. Vinson, 1993: Boreal forests and tundra. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 70, 39-53.

Apps. MJ. and WA. Kurz. 1994: The role of Canadian forests in the global carbon budget. In: Carbon Balance of World's Forested Ecosystems: Towards a Global Assessment (Kanninen, M. (ed.)]. Academy of Finland, Helsinki, Finland, pp. 14-39.

Armentano, T.V. and C.W. Ralston, 1980: The role of temperate zone forests in the global carbon cycle. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 10, 53-60. Arno, S.F., 1984: Timberline: Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers. The Mountaineers, Seattle, WA. 304 pp.

Arris, L.L. and P.A. Eagleson, 1989. Evidence of a physiological basis for the horeal-deciduous cotone in North America Vegetatio, 82, 55-18 Auclair, A.N.D., R.C. Worrest, D. Lachance, and H.C. Martin, 1992: Climatic perturbation as a general mechanisin of forest dieback. In: Forest Dectine Concepts [Manion, P.D. and D. Lachance (eds.)]. APS Press. St. Paul, MN. pp. 38-58.

Austin, M.P., A.O. Nicholls, and CR. Margules, 1990 Measurement of the realized qualitative niche: environmental niches of five Eucalyptus species. Ecological Monographs, 60, 161-177.

Austin, M.P., 1992. Modelling the environmental niche of plants: implications for plant community response to elevated CO, levels. Australian Journa! of Botany, 40, 615-630.

Austin, M.P. A.O. Nicholls. M.D. Doherty, and J.A. Meyers, 1994: Determining species response functions to an environmental gradient by means of a beta-function. Journal of Vegetation Science, 5, 215-228. Barnes. J.D.. M. Hull, and A.W. Davison, 1996 Impacts of air pollutants and rising CO, in winter time. In: Plant Growth and Air Pollution [Yunus, M. and M. Iqbal (eds.)]. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany (in press). Bazzaz. F.A. and E.D. Fajer, 1992: Plant life in a CO-rich world. Scientific American, 266, 68-74.

Berg. B., M.P. Berg, E. Box. P. Bottner, A. Breymeyer. R. Calvo de Anta, M.M. Couteaux, A. Gallardo. A. Escudero, W. Kratz, M. Madeira, C. McClaugherty, V. Meentemeyer, F. Muñoz, P. Piussi. J. Remacle, and A. Virzo de Santo. 1993: Litter mass loss in pine forests of Europe, relationship with climate and litter quality In: Geography of Organic Malter Production and Decay [Breymeyer, A., B. Krawczyk, R. Kulikowski, J. Solon, M. Rosciszewski, and B. Jaworska (eds.). Polish Academy of Sciences. Warsaw, Poland, pp. 81-109.

Beuker, E., 1994- Long-term effects of temperature on the wood production of Pinus sylvestris L. and Picea abies (L) Karst. in old provenance experiments Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 9, 34-45. Bierregaard, JR, TE Lovejoy, V. Kapos, A.A. dos Santos, and R.W. Hutchings. 1992. The biological dynamics of tropical rainforest fragments. Bioscience, 42. 859-865

Billings. WD.. KM. Peterson, J.O. Luken, and D.A. Mortensen, 1984: Interaction of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and soil nitrogen on

the carbon balance of tundra microcosms. Orcologia, 65, 26-29. Bonan. G.B. and H.H. Shugart, 1989: Environmental factors and ecological processes in boreal forests. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 20.1-28.

Bonan, G.B., H.H. Shugart, and D.L. Urban, 1990: The sensitivity of some high-latitude boreal forests to climatic parameters. Climatic Change, 16. 9.29.

Bonan, G.B., 1992: A simulation analysis of environmental factors and ecological processes in North American boreal forests. In: A Systems Analysis of the Global Boreal Forest [Shugart, H.H., R. Leemans, and G.B. Bonan (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp.

404-427.

Bonan, G., 1993: Do biophysics and physiology matter in ecosystem models? Climatic Change, 24, 281-285.

Booth, T.H.. H.A. Nix, M.F. Hutchinson, and T. Jovanovic, 1988: Niche analy sis and tree species introduction. Forest Ecology and Management, 23.

47-59 Bormann. FH. and G.E. Likens, 1979. Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem, Disturbance. Development and the Steady State. Based on the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study Springer, New York a.o., 253 pp. Borota. J., 1991: Tropical Forestx: Some African and Asian Case Studies of

Climate Change Impacts on Forests

Botkin, D.B. and R.A. Nisbet, 1992: Projecting the effects of climate change
on biological diversity in forests. In: Global Warming and Biological
Diversity [Peters. RL and T. Lovejoy (eds.). Yale University Press.
New Haven, CT. pp. 277-293.

Bowes, M.D. and R.A. Sedjo. 1993: Impacts and responses to climate change
in forests of the MINK region, Climatic Change, 24, 63-82.
Box, E., 1978: Geographical dimensions of terrestrial net and gross productiv
ity. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, 15, 305-322.
Box. E.O.. 1981: Macroclimate and Plant Forms: An Introduction to
Predictive Modeling in Phytogeography, Junk. The Hague a.o., 258 pp.
Bray, J.R., 1956: Gap-phase replacement in a maple-basswood forest.
Ecology, 37(3), 598-600.

Brooks, K.N.. P.F. Follott. HM. Gregersen, and JL Thames. 1991:
Hydrology and Management of Watersheds. University of lowa Press.
Ames, IA. 2nd ed., 392 pp.

Brown, S.. C.A.S. Hall, W. Knabe, J. Raich, M.C. Trexler, and P. Woomer. 1993: Tropical forests; their past, present and potential future role in the terrestrial carbon budget. Water. Air and Sail Pollution, 70, 71-94. Bugmann, H. 1994: On the Ecology of Mountainous Forests in a Changing Climate: A Simulation Study Diss ETH No. 10638, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, Switzerland. 258 pp.

Bugmann, H. and A. Fischlin, 1994: Comparing the behaviour of mountainous forest succession models in a changing climate. In: Mounta Envirumments in Changing Climates [Beniston, M. (ed.)]. Routledge. London, UK. pp. 237-255.

Bugmann, H. and A. Fischlin. 1996 Simulating forest dynamics in a complex topography using gridded climatic data. Climatic Change (in press). Campbell. 1 D. and J.H. McAndrews, 1993: Forest disequilibrium caused by rapid Little Ice Age cooling. Nature (London). 366. 136-338. Cannell, MG.R., 1982: World Forest Biomass and Primary Production Data. Academic Press, London, UK, 391 pp.

Cannell, M.G.R.. J. Grace, and A. Booth, 1989: Possible impacts of climatic warming on trees and forests in the United Kingdom: a review Forestry, 62, 337-364. Cannell, M.G.R., 1990: Modelling the phenology of trees. Silvae Carellica, 15. 11-27.

Chandler, C. P Cheney. P. Thomas, L. Trabaud, and D. Williams, 1983a: Fire in Forestry. Vol. 1. Forest Fire Behaviour and Effects. Wiley and Sons. New York a.o.. 450 pp.

Chandler, C., P. Cheney, P. Thomas, L. Trabaud, and D. Williams, 1983b: Fire in Forestry. Vol. II. Forest Fire Management and Organisation. Wiley and Sons, New York a.o.. 298 pp.

Ciesla, W.M. and E. Donaubauer, 1994: Decline and Dieback of Trees and ForestsA Global Overview: FAO Forestry Paper No. 120, FAO, Rome, Italy. 90 pp. Claussen, M., 1994: On coupling global biome models with climate models. Climate Research, 4(3), 203-221.

Claussen. M. and M. Esch, 1994: Biomes computed from simulated climatologies. Climate Dynamics, 9, 235-243.

Cole. M.M.. 1986: The Savannas: Biogeography and Geobotany. Academic Press, London, UK. 438 pp.

Coley, P.D., 1983: Herbivory and defensive characteristic of tree species in a
lowland tropical forest. Ecological Monographs, 53, 209-233.
Comins, H. N. and R.E. McMurtrie, 1993: Long-term biotic response of nutri-
ent-limited forest ecosystems to CO,-enrichment: equilibrium behaviour
of integrated plant-soil models. Ecological Anglications, 3, 666-68|
Cook, E.R., A.H. Johnson, and T.J. Blasing. 1987: Forest decline: modeling
the effect of climate în tree rings. Tree Physiology, 3, 27-40.
Cramer, W.P and A.M. Solomon, 1993: Climatic classification and future
global redistribution of agricultural land. Climate Research, 3, 97-110,
Cramer, W.P. and R. Leemans, 1993: Assessing impacts of climate change on
vegetation using climate classification systems. In: Vegetation Dynamics
and Global Change [Solomon, A.M. and H.H. Shugart (eds.)]. Chapman
and Hall, New York and London, pp. 190-219.
Crutzen, PJ. and J.G. Goldammer (eds.), 1993: Fire in the Environment: The

Ecological, Atmospheric, and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires.
Wiley, Chichester, UK, 400 pp.

Cure, J.D. and B. Acock, 1986: Crop responses to carbon dioxide doubling: a literature survey. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 38, 127-145. Daily, G.C., 1995: Restoring value to the world's degraded lands. Science,

123

Dansgaard, W., J.W.C. White, and S.J. Johnsen, 1989: The abrupt termination of the younger Dryas climate event. Nature (London), 339, 532-533. Davis, M.B.. 1976: Pleistocene biogeography of temperate deciduous forests. Geoscience and Man, 13, 13-26.

Davis, M.B., 1981: Quaternary history and the stability of forest communities. In: Forest Succession: Concepts and Application (West, D.C., H.H. Shugart. and D.B. Botkin (eds.)]. Springer Verlag, New York a.o., pp. 132-153. Davis, M.B. and D.B. Botkin, 1985. Sensitivity of cool-temperate forests and their fossil pollen record to rapid temperature change. Quaternary Research, 23, 327-340.

Davis, M B., 1986: Climatic instability, time lags and community disequilibriuni. In: Community Ecology [Diamond. J. and T. Case (eds.)j. Harper & Row Publishers Inc., Cambridge a.o... pp. 269-284.

Davis. M.B. and C. Zabinski, 1992: Changes in geographical range resulting
from greenhouse warming: effects on biodiversity in forests. In. Global
Warming and Biological Diversity [Peters, R.L. and T.E. Lovejoy (eds )].
Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. pp. 297-308.
DENR-ADB. 1990. Maxter plan for forestry development, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources-Asian Development Bank. Manila.
Philippines. 523 pp.

Deutscher Bundestag. 1990; Schutz der tropischen Wälder: Eine internanonale Schwerpunktaufgabe (Protecting the Tropical Forests. A HighPriority International Task). Second report of the Enquete Commission "Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphaere. Deutscher Bundestag. Referat Oeffentlichkeitsarbeit, Bonn, Germany. 983 pp.

Diaz. S.. J.P. Grime. J. Harris, and E. McPherson, 1993: Evidence of a feedhack mechanism limiting plant response to elevated carbon dioxide. Nature (London), 364, 616–617

Dixon. R.K. and D.P. Turner. 1991: The global carbon cycle and climate change responses and feedbacks from below-ground systems Environmental Pollution, 73, 245-262.

Dixon. R.K. and O.N. Krankina, 1993: Forest fires in Russia: carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 23. 700-705.

Dixon, R.K., S. Brown, R.A. Houghton, A.M. Solomon, M.C. Trexler, and J. Wisniewski, 1994: Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems. Science, 263, 185-90.

Dobson, A., A. Jolly, and D. Rubenstein, 1989- The greenhouse effect and biological diversity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 4(3), 64-68. Dobson. A. and R. Carper, 1992: Global warming and potential changes in host-parasite and disease-vector relationships. In: Global Warming and Biological Diversity [Peters, R.L. and TE Lovejoy (eds.)! Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. pp. 201-217.

Durka, W., E.D. Schulze, G. Gebauer, and S. Voerkelins, 1994: Effects of forest decline on uptake and leaching of deposited nitrate determined from 15N and 180 measurements. Nature (London), 372, 765-767.

Eamus. D. and P.G. Jarvis, 1989. The direct effects of increase in the global atmospheric CO, concentration on natural and commercial temperate trees and forests. Advances in Ecological Research, 19, 1–55. Edmonds. R.L.. 1982. Analysis of Coniferous Forest Ecosystems in the Western United States. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company. Stroudsburg, PA. 419 pp.

Ehrlich. P.R. and E.O. Wilson, 1991: Biodiversity studies: science and policy. Science. 253. 758-762.

Ellenberg. H. (ed.), 1971: Integrated Experimental Ecology-Methods and Results of Ecosystem Researcit in the German Solling Project. Chapman. and Hall/Springer-Verlag, London/Berlin. 214 pp.

Emanuel, W.R.. H.H. Shugart, and M.P. Stevenson, 1985: Climatic change and the broad-scale distribution of terrestrial ecosystem complexes. Climatic Change, 7, 29-43.

Ennos, R.A.. 1994: Estimating the relative rates of pollen and seed migration among plant populations. Heredity, 72, 250-259.

Enting. I.G. and J.V. Mansbridge, 1991: Latitudinal distribution of sources and
sinks of CO results of an inversion study. Tellus, 43B, 156-170.
Erwin, T., 1991: How many species are there?: Revisited. Conservation
Biology, 5, 330-333.

FAO, 1982: Conservation and Development of Tropical Forest Resources.
FAO Forest Paper 37, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

124

FAO, 1993a: Forest Resources Assessment 1990-Tropical Countries. FAO Forest Paper 112, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 59 pp.

FAO. 1993b. Forestry Statistics Today for Tomorrow: 1961-1991...2010. Report prepared by Statistics and Economic Analysis Staff of the Forestry Department, FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 46 pp.

Fenner, M., 1991: Irregular seed crops in forest trees. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 85, 166-172.

FIRESCAN Science Team, 1995: Fire in boreal ecosystems of Eurasia: first results of the Bor forest island fire experiment, fire research campaign Asia-North (FIRESCAN). Journal of World Resource Review, 6.499-523

Fischlin, A.. H. Rug.narn, on1 D. Gyalistras, 1995: Sensitivity of a forest ecosystem model to climate parametrization schemes. Environmental Pollution, 87(3), 267-282.

Fitter, A.H. and R.K.M. Hay, 1987: Environmental Physiology of Plants.
Academic Press, San Diego, CA. 2nd ed., 421 pp.
Flannigan, M.D. and C.E. van Wagner, 1991: Climatic change and wildfires
in Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 21, 66-72.
Flenley, J.R., 1979: The Equatorial Rainforest A Geological History
Butterworths, London a.o., 162 pp.

Franklin, J.F., 1988: Structural and functional diversity in temperate forests.
In: Biodiversity (Wilson, E.O. (ed.)). National Academy Press.
Washington, DC. pp. 166-175.

Franklin, J.F., F.J. Swanson, M.E. Harmon, D.A. Perry, T.A. Spies, V.H. Dale. A. McKee, W.K. Ferrell, J.E. Means, S.V. Gregory, J.D. Lattin, T.D Schowalter, and D. Larsen, 1992: Effects of global climatic change on forests in northwestern North America. In: Global Warming and Biological Diversity (Peters, R.L. and T. Lovejoy (eds.)]. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. and London, UK, pp. 244-257,

Friend, A. D., H.H. Shugart, and S.W. Running, 1993: A physiology-based gap model of forest dynamics. Ecology, 74, 792-797.

Galinski, W. and M. Küppers, 1994: Polish forest ecosystem, the influence of
changes in the economic system on the carbon balance. Climatic Change.
27, 103-119.
Garfinkel, H.L.. and L.B. Brubaken, 1980: Modern climate-tree-growth rela-
tionships and climatic reconstruction in sub-arctic Alaska. Nature
(London). 286, 872-874.

Gash, J.H.C. and WJ. Shuttleworth, 1991: Tropical deforestation: albedo and
the surface-energy balance. Climatic Change, 19. 123-133.
Gaston, K.J., 1991: The magnitude of global insect species richness.
Conservation Biology, 5. 283-296.

Gates. D.M., 1993: Climate Change and Its Biological Consequences. Sinauer
Associates Inc.. Sunderland, MA, 280 pp.

Gear, A.J. and B. Huntley, 1991: Rapid change in the range limits of Scots pine 4.000 years ago. Science, 251. 544-547.

Gholz, H.L. 1982: Environmental limits on aboveground net primary production, leaf area and biomass in vegetation zones of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology, 63, 469-481.

Gifford, K.M., 1979: Growth and yield of CO-enriched wheat under water

limited conditions. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 6, 367-378. Gill, A.M., R.H. Groves, and L.R. Noble, 1981: Fire and the Australian Biota. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, Australia, 582 pp. Goldammer, J.G. and B. Seibert, 1990. The impact of droughts and forest fires on tropical lowland rainforest of eastern Borneo. In: Fire in the Tropical Biota-Ecosystems Processes and Global Challenges [Goldammer, J.G. (ed.)]. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 11-31. Goldammer, J.G. and MJ. Jenkins, 1990: Fire in Ecosystem DynamicsMediterranean and Northern Perspectives, SPB Academic Publishing. The Hague, The Netherlands, 199 pp.

Goldammer, J.G. and S.R. Peñafiel, 1990: Fire in the pine-grassland bicmes of tropical and sub-tropical Asia. In: Fire in the Tropical

Biota-Ecosystems Processes and Global Challenges (Goldammer, J.G. (ed.)]. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 45-62. Goldammer, J.G., 1992: Tropical Forests in Transition: Ecology of Natural and Anthropogenic Disturbance Processes. Birkhäuser Verlag. Basel

Climate Change Impacts on Forests

Greco, S., R.H. Moss, D. Viner, and R. Jenne, 1994: Climate Scenarios and Socioeconomic Projections for IPCC WG II Assessment. IPCC - WMO and UNEP, Washington, DC, 67 pp.

Green, D.G., 1987: Pollen evidence for the postglacial origins of Nova
Scotia's forests. Canadian Journal of Botany, 65, 1163-1179.
Groombridge, B. (ed.), 1992: Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth's
Living Resources. Chapman & Hall, London a.o.. 585 pp.
Grubb, P.J., 1977. The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities:
the importance of the regeneration niche. Biological Reviews of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 52, 107-145.
Gyalistras, D., H. von-Storch, A. Fischlin, and M. Beniston, 1994: Linking
GCM-simulated climatic changes to ecosystem models: case studies of
statistical downscaling in ue Alps Climate Research, 4(3), 167-189.
Hamburg. S.P. and C.V. Cogbill, 1988: Historical decline of red spruce popu-
lations and climatic warming. Nature (London), 331, 428-431.
Hänninen, H., 1991: Does climatic warming increase the risk of frost damage
in northern trees? Plant, Cell and Environment, 14, 449-454.
Hartshorn, G.S., 1978: Treefalls and tropical forest dynamics. In: Tropical
Trees as Living Systems [Tomlinson, P.B. and M.H. Zimmerman (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, pp. 617-638.

Heath, L.S.. P.E. Kauppi, P. Burschel, H.-D. Gregor. R. Guderian, G.H.
Kohlmaier. S. Lorenz, D. Overdieck, F. Scholz, H. Thomasies, and M.
Weber, 1993: Contribution of temperate forests to the world's carbon
budget. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 70, 55-69.

Heide, O.M., 1974. Growth and dormancy in Norway spruce ecotypes (Picea abies). I. Interactions of photoperiod and temperature. Physiologia Plantarum, 30, 1-12.

Heide, O.M., 1993: Dormancy release in beech buds (Fagus sylvatica) requires both chilling and long days. Physiologia Plantarum, 89, 187-191. Henderson-Sellers. A., R.E. Dickinson, and M.F. Wilson, 1988: Tropical deforestation: important processes for climate models. Climatic Change, 13, 43-67. Henderson-Sellers, A. and K. McGuffie. 1994: Land surface characterisation in greenhouse climate simulations. International Journal of Climatology. 14, 1065-1094.

Henttonen, H., M. Kanninen, M. Nygren, and R. Ojansuu, 1986. The maturation of Scots pine seeds in relation to temperature climate in northern Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 1. 234-249. Hinckley. T.M.. R.O. Teskey. F. Duhme. and H. Richter. 1981: Temperate hardwood forests. In: Water Deficits and Plant Growth. VI - Woods Plant Communities Kozlowski, T.T. (ed.)]. Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 153-208.

Hofgaard. A. L. Kullman, and H. Alexandersson. 1991; Response of oldgrowth montane Picea abies (L.) Karst. forest to climatic variability in northern Sweden. New Phytologist, 119, 585-594.

Hofgaard. A., 1993: Structure and regeneration patterns in a virgin Picea abies forest in northern Sweden. Journal of Vegetation Science, 4, 601-608. Holdridge. L.R.. 1947: Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data Science, 105, 367–368.

Holdridge, L.R., 1967: Life Zone Ecology. Report. Tropical Science Center. San Jose, Costa Rica, 206 pp.

Houghton, R.A.. 1993; Is carbon accumulating in the northern temperate zone? Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, 7, 6!1-617. Huntley, B. and H.J.B. Birks. 1983: An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen Maps for Europe: 0-13,000 Years Ago. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge a.o.. 667 pp.

Hutchinson, G.E., 1957: Concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, 22, 415-427.

Idso. K.B. and S.B. Idso, 1994 Plant responses to atmospheric CO, enrichment in the face of environmental constraints: a review of the past 10 years' research. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 69, 153-203. Innes, J.L., 1991: High-altitude and high-latitude tree growth in relation to past. present and future global climate change. The Holocene, 1, 168-173. Innes, J.L., 1993: Forest Health: Its Assessment and Status. CAB International. Wallingford, Oxon, UK, 677 pp.

Innes. J.L., 1994: The occurrence of flowering and fruiting in individual trees over 3 years and their effects on subsequent crown condition. Trees, 8, 139-150. Iversen, J., 1944: Viscum, Hedera and flex as climatic indicators. Geol Foren

Climate Change Impacts on Forests

Janzen, D.H., 1988: Tropical dry forests: the most endangered major tropical ecosystem. In: Biodiversity (Wilson, E.O. (ed.)]. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. pp. 130-137.

Jenkinson, D.S., D.E. Adams, and A. Wild, 1991: Model estimates of CO, emissions from soil in response to global warming. Nature (London), 351, 204-306.

Johnson, A.H., E.R. Cook, and T.G. Siccama, 1988: Climate and red spruce growth and decline in the northern Appalachians. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 85, 5369-5373.

Johnson, E.A., and C.P.S. Larson, 1991: Climatically induced change in fire frequency in the southern Canadian Rockies. Ecology, 72, 194-201. Jones, C.G. and J.S. Coleman, 1991: Plant stress and insect herbivory: towards an integrated perspective. In: Response of Plants to Multiple Stresses [Mooney, H.A., WE. Winner, and F.J. Pell (eds.)]. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. pp. 249-280.

Jones, E.A.. D.D. Reed. G.D. Mroz, H.O. Liechty, and P.J. Cattelino, 1993: Climate stress as a precursor to forest decline: paper birch in northern Michigan 1985-1990. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 23, 229-233.

Jonsson, B.G. and P-A. Esseen. 1990: Treefall disturbance maintains high bryophyte diversity in a horeal spruce forest. Journal of Ecology, 78. 924-936.

Jordan, C.F., 1985: Nutrient Cycling in Tropical Forest Ecosystem: Principles and Their Application in Management and Conservation. Wiley. Chichester a.o., 190 pp.

Kasischke, E.S.. N.L. Christensen, Jr., and B.J. Stocks, 1995: Fire, global warming, and the carbon balance of boreal forests. Ecological Applications, S. 437-451.

Kauppi, P. and M. Posch, 1985: Sensitivity of boreal forests to possible climatic warming. Climatic Change, 7, 45-54.

Kauppi, P.E., K. Mielikäinen, and K. Kuusela. 1992: Biomass and carbon budget of European forests, 1971 to 1990. Science, 256, 70-74. Kellomäki, S. and M. Kolström, 1992: Simulation of tree species composition and organic matter accumulation in Finnish boreal forests under changing climatic conditions. Vegetatio, 102, 47-68.

Kienast, F., 1991: Simulated effects of increasing atmospheric CO, and changing climate on the successional characteristics of Alpine forest ecosystems. Landscape Ecology, 5(4), 225–238.

Kienast, F. and N. Kräuchi, 1991: Simulated successional characteristics of managed and unmanaged low-elevation forests in Central Europe. Forest Ecology and Management, 42, 49-61.

Kimball, B.A., 1983: Carbon dioxide and agricultural yield: an assemblage and analysis of 430 prior observations. Agronomy Journal, 75, 779-788. Kimmins, J.P. and D.P. Lavender., 1992: Ecosystem-level changes that may be expected in a changing global climate: a British Columbia perspective. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 11, 1061-1068.

King, G.A. and R.P. Neilson, 1992: The transient response of vegetation to climate change: a potential source of CO, to the atmosphere. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 64, 365–383.

Kirschbaum, M.U.F., 1993: A modelling study of the effects of changes in atmospheric CO, concentration, temperature and atmospheric nitrogen input on soil organic carbon storage. Tellus, 45B, 321-334. Kirschbaum, ¡4.U.F., 1994: The sensitivity of C, photosynthesis to increasing CO, concentration—a theoretical analysis of its dependence on temperature and background CO, concentration. Plant, Cell and Environment, 17, 747-754.

Kirschbaum, M.U.F. DA. King, H.N. Comins, R.E. McMurtrie, B.E. Medlyn, S. Pongracic, D. Murty, H. Keith, R.J. Raison, P.K. Khanna, and D.W. Sheriff, 1994: Modelling forest response to increasing CO, concentration under nutrient-limited conditions. Plant, Cell and Environment, 17, 1081-1099.

Kirschbaum, M.U.F., 1995: The temperature dependence of soil organic matter decomposition and the effect of global warming on soil organic carbon storage. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 27, 753-760.

Kobak, K. and N. Kondrasheva, 1993: Residence time of carbon in soils of the boreal zone. In: Carbon Cycling in Boreal Forest and Sub-Arctic Ecosystems [Vinson, T.S. and T.P. Kolchugina (eds.)]. EPA, Corvallis,

125

Kohlmaier, G.H., C. Häger, G. Würth, M.K.B. Lüdeke, P. Ramge, F.W. Badeck, J. Kindermann, and T. Lang, 1995: Effects of the age class distribution of the temperate and boreal forests on the global CO, sourcesink function. Tellus, 47B, 212-231.

Kokorin, A.O., G.V. Mironova, and N.V. Semenuk, 1993: The influence of climatic variations on the growth of cedar and fir in south Baikal region. In: Global and Regional Consequences of the Climatic and Environmental Change (Izrael, Y.A. and Y.A. Anokhin (eds.);. Gidrometeoizdat, St. Petersburg. Russia, pp. 160-175 (in Russian). Köppen. W., 1936: Das Geographische System der Klimate. Gebrüder Bornträger, Berlin, Germany, 46 pp.

Körner, C. and J.A. Amone III, 1992: Responses to elevated carbon dioxide in artificial tropical ecosystems. Science, 257, 1672–1675. Körner, C., 1993: CO, fertilization: the great uncertainty in future vegetation development. In: Vegetation Dynamics and Global Change |Solomon, A.M. and H.H. Shugart (eds.)]. Chapman & Hall, New York, NY, and London, UK. pp. 53-70.

Korzukhin, M.D.. A.E. Rubinina, G.B. Bonan, A.M. Solomon, and M.Y Anotonysky. 1989: The Silvics of Some East European and Siberiun Boreal Forest Tree Species. Working Paper WP-89-56. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg. Austria. 27 pp. Kozlowski, T.T. and C.E. Ahlgren, 1974: Fire and Ecosystems. Academic Press, New York, NY, 542 pp.

Kullman, L., 1986: Recent tree-limit history of Picea abies in the southern Swedish Scandes. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 16, 761-771. Kullman, L., 1990: Dynamics of altitudinal tree-limits in Sweden: a review. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 44, 103-116.

Kurz, WA., MJ. Apps, T.M. Webb, and PJ. McNamee, 1992: The Carbon Budget of the Canadian Forest Sector: Phase 1 Forestry Canada. Northern Forestry Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, 93 pp.

Kurz, WA. and MJ. Apps, 1993: Contribution of northern forests to the global C cycle: Canada as a case study. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 70, 163–176. Kurz, W.A., M.J. Apps, B.J. Stocks, and WJ. Volney, 1995: Global climate change: disturbance regimes and biospheric feedbacks of temperate and boreal forests. In: Biospheric Feedbacks in the Global Climate System— Will the Warming Feed the Warming? [Woodwell, G.M. and F.T. Mackenzie (eds.)]. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, and Oxford, UK, pp. 119-133.

Lambert, M.J. and J. Turner, 1977: Dieback in high site quality Pinus radiata stands the role of sulfur and boron deficiencies. New Zealand Journal of Forestry, 7, 333-348.

Landhäusser, S.M. and R.W. Wein, 1993: Postfire vegetation recovery and
tree establishment at the Arctic beeling: climate-change vegetation-
response hypotheses. Journal of Ecology, 81, 665-672.
Landsberg, J.J., S. Linder, and R.E. McMurtrie, 1995: A Strategic Plan for
Research on Managed Forest Ecosystems in a Globally Changing
Environment. Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems (GCTE) Report
No. 4 and IUFRO Occasional Paper 1. GCTE Activity 3.5: Effects of
Global Change on Managed Forests—Implementation Plan, GCTE Core
Project Office, Canberra, Australia, pp 1-17.

Larsen, J.A.. 1980: The Boreal Ecosystem. Academic Press, New York a.o.. 500 pp.

Larsen, A. (ed.), 1989: The Northern Forest Border in Canada and Alaska. Springer Verlag, New York a.o., 255 pp.

Lean, J. and D.A. Warrilow, 1989; Simulation of the regional climatic impect of Amazon deforestation. Nature (London), 342, 411-413. LeBlanc, D.C. and J.K. Foster, 1992: Predicting effects of global warming on growth and mortality of upland oak species in the midwestern United States: a physiologically based dendroecological approach. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 22, 1739-1752.

Leemans, R. and W.P. Cramer, 1991: The IIASA Database for Mean Monthly Values of Temperature, Precipitation, and Cloudiness on a Global Terrestrial Grid. Research Report RR-91-18, IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria, 72 pp. Leemans, R., 1992: Modelling ecological and agricultural impacts of global change on a global scale. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 51, 709-724.

Leemans, R. and A.M. Solomon, 1993: Modeling the potential change in yield and distribution of the earth's crops under a warmed climate. Climate

126

Leemans, R. and G.J. van den Born, 1994: Determining the potential distribution of vegetation, crops and agricultural productivity Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 76, 133-161.

eemans, R., WP. Cramer, and J.G. van Minnen, 1995: Prediction of global biome distribution using bioclimatic equilibriuin models. In: Global Change Effects on Coniferous Forests and Grassland Melillo, J.M. and A Breymeyer (eds.) John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 57 pp. (submitted). evitt, J., 1980a: Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses. Vol. I. Chilling, Freezing, und High Temperature Stresses. Academic Press. New York a.o.. 2nd ed., 497 pp.

evitt. J. 1980b. Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses. Vol. II. Water, Radiation. Salt, and Other Stresses. Academic Press, New York a.c. 2nd ed., 607 pp.

iu. Q, and H. Hytteborn, 1991: Gap structure, disturbance and regeneration in - primeval Picea abies forest. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2, 391-402. Joyd, J. and J.A. Taylor, 1994: On the temperature dependence of soil respiration. Functional Ecology, 8, 315-323.

ong, S.P., 1991. Modification of the response of photosynthetic productivity to rising temperature by atmospheric CO, concentration: has its importance been underestimated? Plant, Cell and Environment, 14, 729-739. ongman, K.A. and J. Jenik, 1987. Tropical Forest and Its Environment.

Harlow, Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex, England, 2nd ed., 347 pp. otter. A. and F. Kienast, 1992. Validation of a forest succession model by means of annually laminated sediments. In: Laminated Sediments [Saaristo, M. and A. Kahra (eds.)). Proceedings of the workshop at Lammi Biological Station, 4-6, June 1990, Geological Survey of Finland. pp. 25-31.

üdeke, M.K.B., S Dönges, R.D. Otto, J. Kindermann, FW Badeck. P. Ramge. U. Jakel, and G.H. Kohlmaier, 1995: Responses in NPP and carbon stores of the northern biomes to a CO-induced climatic change, as evaluated by the Frankfurt Biosphere Model (FBM). Tellus, 47B, 191-205 ugo. A E., M. Applefield, D.J. Pool, and R.B. McDonald, 1983. The impact of hurricane David on the forest of Dominica. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 13, 201-211.

ugo. A.E.. 1988: Estimating reductions in the diversity of tropical forest species. In: Brodiversity [Wilson. E.O. (ed.)| National Academy Press. Washington, DC. pp. 58-70,

uo, Y. C.B. Field, and H A. Mooney. 1994. Predicting responses of photosynthesis and root fraction to elevated [CO]: interactions among carbon. nitrogen and growth. Plant, Cell and Environment. 17. 1195-1204. uxmoore, RJ.. S.D. Wullschleger, and P.J. Hanson, 1993: Forest responses to CO, enrichment and climate warming. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 70.309-323.

vons. J.M.. 1973: Chilling injury in plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 24, 445-466.

vons. J.M., D. Graham, and J.K. Raison (eds.), 1979- Low Temperature Stress in Crop Plans: The Role of the Membrane. Academic Press, New York a.o. 565 pp.

labberley. DJ., 1992. Tropical Rainforest Ecology. Blackie and Son Ltd. Glasgow and London, UK. 2nd. cd.. 300 pp.

lalanson, G.P., WE. Westman, and Y.-L. Yan, 1992: Realized versus fundamental niche functions in a model of chaparral response to climatic change. Ecological Modelling. 64, 261-277.

Janabe, S. and RT. Weatherald, 1987: Large-scale changes of soil wetness induced by an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 4448). 1211-1235.

lartinat, PJ, 1987: The role of climatic variation and weather in forest insect

outbreaks. In: Insect Outbreaks [Barbosa, P. and J.C. Schultz (eds.)]. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA. pp. 241-268.

fatthews, E., 1983: Global vegetation and land use: new high-resolution data beses for climate studies. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology. 22. 474-487.

lattson, W.J., 1980. Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11, 119-161

attson, W.J. and R.A. Haack, 1987: The role of drought stress in provoking outbreaks of phytophagous insects. In: Insect Outbreaks |Barbosa, P. and J.C. Schultz (eds.)]. Academic Press, Inc. San Diego, CA, pp. 365-407. atyas, C., 1994; Modelling climate change effects with provenance test data.

Climate Change Impacts on Forests

May. R.M., 1990: How many species? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London-Series B, 330, 171-182

Melillo, JM., TV Callaghan, FI. Woodward, E. Salati, and S. K. Sinha, 1990 Effects on ecosystems. In: Climate Change-The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Report Prepared for IPCC by Working Group I [Houghton, J.T.. G.J. Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge a.o., pp. 283-310. Melillo, J.M., A.D. McGuire, D.W. Kicklighter, B. Moore III. C.J. Vorosmarty, and A.L. Schloss, 1993: Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature (London), 363, 234-240

Mikola, P. 1962 Temperature and tree growth near the northern timber line. In: Tree Growth (Kozlowski, T.T. (ed.)). Ronald Press, New York, NY. pp. 265-274. Mitchell, J.FB. S. Manabe, V Meleshko, and T. Tokioka, 1990: Equilibrium climate change-and its implications for the future. In Climate Change-The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Report Prepared for IPCC bv Working Group 1 [Houghton, J.T., G.J. Jenkins, and J.J. Ephraums (eds.)] Can.bridge University Press, Cambridge a.o., pp. 139-173.

Monserud. R.A.. O.V. Denissenko, and N.M. Tchebakova, 1993a: Comparison of Siberian palaeovegetation to current and future vegetation under climate change Climate Research, 3, 143-159. Monserud, RA, N.M. Tchebakova, and R. Leemans, 1993b: Global vegetation change predicted by the modified Budyko model Climatic Change. 25. 59.83.

Mooney, H.A. 1988: Lessons from Mediterranean-climate regions. In Biodiversity Wilson, E.O. (ed.)]. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. pp. 157-165.

Mooney, H.A., B.G. Drake, R.J. Luxmoore W.C. Occhel, and LF. Pitelka, 1991: Predicting ecosystein responses to elevated CO, concentrations, what has been learned from laboratory experiments on plant physiology and field observations? Bioscience, 41, 96-104.

Moore, A.D., 1989: On the maximum growth equation used in forest gap sim-
ulation models Ecological Modelling, 45, 63-67.
Morikawa, Y., 1993: Climate changes and forests. In: The Potential Effects of
Climate Change in Japan [Harasawa, S.N., H. Hashimoto, T. Ookita, K.
Masuda, and T. Morita (eds.). Center for Global Environmental
Research. Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305, Japan, pp. 37-44.

Morison, JL, 1987. Intercellular CO, concentration and stomatal responses
to CO In Stomatal Function [Zeiger. E., G.D. Farquhar, and LR.
Cowan (eds.)]. University Press, Stanford, CA. pp. 229-251.
Mueller-Dombois. D., 1992: Potential effects of the increase in carbon diox-
ide and climate change in the dynamics of vegetation. Water, Air, and
Soil Pollution, 64, 61-79.

Murray, M.B., M.G.R. Cannell, and R.I. Smith, 1989; Date of budburst of fifteen tree species in Britain following climatic warming. Journal of Applied Ecology, 26, 693-700,

Myers. N., 1991: Tropical forest, present status and future outlook. Climatic Change, 19, 3-32

Myers. N.. 1992. Synergisms, joint effects of climate change and other forms of habitat destruction. In: Global Warming and Biological Diversity [Peters, R.L. and T.E. Lovejoy (eds.). Yale University Press. New Haven, CT, and London, UK. pp. 344-354.

Myers. N, 1993: Questions of mass extinction. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2.2-17.

Myers. N., 1995. Environmental unknowns. Science, 269, 358-360, Neilson, R.P., G.A King, and G. Koerper, 1992. Toward a rule-based biome model. Landscape Ecology, 7, 27-43.

Neilson, R.P., 1993: Vegetation redistribution: a possible biosphere source of CO, during climate change. Water. Air, and Soil Pollution, 70, 659-673. Neilson, R.P. and D. Marks, 1994: A global perspective of regional vegetation and hydrologic sensitivities from climatic change. Journal of Vegetation Science, 27, 715-730

Neilson, R.P., G.A. King, and J. Lenihan, 1994: Modeling forest response to climatic change the potential for large emissions of carbon from dying forests. In: Carbon Balance of World's Forested Ecosystems: Towards a Global Assessment (Kanninen, M. (ed.)). Academy of Finland. Helsinki, Finland, pp. 150-162.

Nikolov, N. and H. Helmisaari, 1992: Silvics of the circumpolar boreal forest tree species. In: A Systems Analysis of the Global Boreal Forest (Shugart. H.H., R. Leemans, and G.B. Bonan (eds.)). Cambridge University Press.