Under pressure from A. Philip Randolph, an AFL-CIO vice president and president of the Negro American Labor Council, the delegates adopted a resolution calling for faster action in advancing Negroes to a position of full equality within the labor movement, but Mr. Randolph and his supporters were unable to win specific sanctions, including expulsion, against unions which lag in revising their policies.

The International Unions. The formal dissolution of the Teamster board of monitors on February 28 opened the way for a Teamster convention which was held in Miami early in July. President James R. Hoffa and his slate of officers were reelected. The convention delegates revised the union constitution in an attempt to bring it into conformity with the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act. They also made various changes which weakened the powers residing in the membership and correspondingly heightened the influence of the area conferences and the international leadership, both in internal affairs and in collective bargaining. Minimum monthly dues were raised to $5 and per capita fees to the international were set at $1, a 60-cent increase. Part of the additional money will be used to finance higher weekly strike benefits and a pension plan for officers, business agents, and employees of the union.

The National Maritime Union, the International Longshoremen's Association, and the Teamsters on May 12 announced a mutual assistance pact, but the ILA withdrew 4 days later. The ILA's readmission to the AFL-CIO in 1959 was conditioned on its continued adherence to the Federation's standards, and AFL-CIO policy forbids formal alliances with the Teamsters. NMU President Joseph Curran, who is also a member of the AFL-CIO Executive Council, has supported the readmission of the Teamsters to the Federation.

The Teamsters and the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers (Ind.) signed a mutual assistance pact that went into effect on August 18. It provides for joint organizing projects, mutual support in collective bargaining, and cooperation in legislative efforts.

The entente between the Seafarers and the NMU, which had resulted in their sponsorship of

the International Maritime Workers Union to organize "runaway" shipping, broke down publicly during this year's negotiations with the shipping industry. The IMWU was formally dissolved early in May. On April 18, the Seafarers' International Union was suspended from the International Transportworkers' Federation, because the Canadian District of the Seafarers had continued to support a wildcat strike by British seamen in 1959 despite a warning from the ITF's executive committee to cease interfering in the affairs of the National Union of Seamen of Great Britain. Four U.S. maritime unions withdrew from the ITF as a result of the suspension of the Seafarers.

During the early part of the year, mergers among the postal unions continued. Effective July 1, the National Postal Transport Association united with two other unions that had recently formed the United Federation of Post Office Clerks. The resulting organization has a membership of about 160,000.

The 2,500 member Glove Workers Union and the 385,000 member Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America approved a merger agreement at Miami in December that will join the two former organizing rivals in the glove industry. The new organization will retain the name of the ACWA. On August 30, an announcement of an agreement to merge the independent Order of Railway Conductors and Brakemen with the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen was made. The new organization, which will retain the Trainmen name, will have a membership of 225,000.

The International Association of Machinists sponsored a conference on international trade late in November to develop support of liberal trade policies and to find ways "to meet unfair competition based on exploitation of foreign labor." Described as the first of its kind in the labor movement, the conference recommended machinery to prevent the "flooding" of U.S. markets with foreign goods and the exploitation of labor abroad; trade adjustment protection; the raising of labor standards throughout the world through the International Labor Organization and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs; and legal changes to deny tax deferment to firms producing goods abroad under lower taxes and to require management to compete more freely.

Legislation and Executive Actions

President John F. Kennedy sent to the Congress his first detailed economic proposals in January. The measures he advocated to counteract the recession and raise the rate of economic growth included an increase in the Federal minimum wage, as well as coverage of unprotected workers; a temporary extension in the duration of unemployment compensation; an increase in minimum social security benefits; and grants and loans for chronically depressed areas.

In November, the administration made a tentative decision to present its foreign trade proposals to the Congress in January 1962. In preliminary form, they included broader and more flexible authority to negotiate tariff reductions and Federal aid to industries, workers, and communities hurt by foreign competition.

Federal and State Legislation. On March 24, the President signed a bill extending unemployment insurance payments to jobless persons who exhaust their regular benefits between July 1, 1960, and April 1, 1962, under a federally financed and State-administered program. Benefits were extended by one-half the duration to which workers are entitled under State law, up to 13 weeks in any benefit year.

During 1961, 15 States raised their maximum weekly unemployment benefits, and 8 of them also raised minimum benefits. Eleven States, with 20.8 percent of all covered workers, now have maximums amounting to 50 percent or more of their State's average weekly wage in covered employment. Six States that increased minimum weekly benefits also required higher earnings, or earnings over a longer period, to qualify claimants for any benefit.

The Area Redevelopment Act became law on May 1, 1961. Areas which meet criteria established by the law may receive (a) grants for the purchase or development of land and facilities for industrial or commercial use, (b) loans and grants to assist in financing the purchase or development of land for public facilities, and the construction, rehabilitation, or improvement of such facilities, (c) technical assistance, such as help in evaluating the skills of the labor force of a community, and (d) assistance in occupational

7

training. Although funds were not available until the 30th of September, 826 localities had been designated as redevelopment areas and 10 projects had been approved, 2 involving the retraining of unemployed workers, by the end of November.

Reflecting the widespread interest in retraining, nine States amended their unemployment insurance laws to specifically authorize payment of unemployment compensation to an otherwise eligible claimant who is attending a training course approved by the appropriate State agency. The laws of 14 States and the District of Columbia now contain such provisions.

Amendments to the Fair Labor Standards Act raised the Federal minimum wage for all except newly covered workers to $1.15 an hour on September 3, 1961, and $1.25 in September 1963. Other amendments extended coverage of the minimum wage and overtime provisions gradually to about 3.6 additional workers, most of whom are employed either in retail trade or construction.

Washington and Connecticut raised their statutory minimum wage rates to $1.15 an hour, effective June 30 and October 1, respectively. In Washington, the minimum rate will become $1.25 an hour on January 1, 1962, and in Connecticut, it will rise to $1.25 on October 1, 1963. Pennsylvania adopted a statutory minimum wage law of $1 an hour (retaining its former wage board procedure as well) and extended coverage to men. Twelve of 19 States with a statutory minimum now set the minimum rate at $1 an hour or more.

Minimum primary social security benefits were increased from $33 to $40 a month on August 1, 1961. Other social security amendments lowered the age at which men may retire to 62 (with a reduced annuity), shortened the period of employment required to qualify for benefits, raised widows' benefits, and increased the earnings permitted a retired person before his benefits are reduced.

The emphasis on gradual liberalization of the workmen's compensation laws continued during 1961. Twelve States and the District of Columbia amended their laws to raise maximum weekly or

In two States-Maine and Texas-higher benefits are not effective until 1962.

7 See Monthly Labor Review, September 1961. pp. 940-941.

monthly benefits for death and all types of disability, and five additional States raised weekly or total maximum benefits for some injuries. Eighteen States and the District of Columbia now set maximum weekly benefits for temporary total disability at $50 or more a week; six of these and the District of Columbia have a maximum of $70

or more.

Laws prohibiting discrimination in employment were enacted in Idaho, Illinois, and Missouri, and the Kansas law was amended to make compliance mandatory. Wisconsin amended its fair employment practice law to prohibit discrimination according to sex, while California, Ohio, and Washington enacted prohibitions on discrimination against older workers.

Some improvements for farmworkers were gained through State laws, and the Federal law regulating the Mexican farm labor program was amended to require employers to offer the same working conditions to domestic workers as to Mexicans. In Wisconsin, workmen's compensation now covers a farmer who employs at least six workers for 20 days during a calendar year. California amended its temporary disability insurance law to cover farmworkers and issued a minimum wage order of $1 an hour for women and minors working in agriculture. Illinois became the 25th State to adopt a mandatory farm labor camp code. Under this law, Illinois camps must be inspected and licensed by the Department of Health.

North Dakota enacted a labor relations act, making a total of 14 jurisdictions with laws guaranteeing the right to organize and bargain collectively and setting forth unfair labor practices. Nebraska amended its "right-to-work" law to prohibit the agency shop. In California, public employees were specifically granted the right to join unions and their employers are required to confer with the representatives of such employees upon request.

Laws prohibiting the recruiting of strikebreakers were enacted in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, and Washington. (In 1960, Massachusetts had passed a law requiring those who import strikebreakers from other States to file a report with the

The New Jersey law was passed by the 1960 legislature but not approved until February 15, 1961.

'NLRB v. Radio and Television Broadcast Engineers Union, Local 1218, IBEW (U.S. Sup. Ct., Jan. 9, 1961).

State Commissioner of Labor and Industries. It also prohibited importing certain categories of criminals.) The impetus for these laws comes in part from the campaign of the printing and paper industry unions for such legislation in all States.

Presidential Committees. In mid-November, President Kennedy announced the appointment of a White House Committee on Youth Employment. The committee of 21 includes cabinet officers, business and union officials, and civic leaders. Secretary of Labor Arthur J. Goldberg was named chairman. The President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity, established on March 6 to prevent discrimination in Government employment and in hiring and terms and conditions of employment by holders of Government contracts, negotiated an agreement with the Lockheed Aircraft Co. in May. By the end of November, 22 additional companies, employing about 1 million workers, had agreed upon formal plans for fair employment practices.

The Courts and the NLRB

The year's most significant legal rulings appeared in U.S. Supreme Court decisions which reversed National Labor Relations Board doctrines of several years' standing and in NLRB rulings on issues arising out of the 1959 amendments to the Taft-Hartley Act.

The Courts. The Supreme Court settled a conflict in the courts of appeals in ruling that the NLRB is required to decide jurisdictional disputes under section 10(k) of the Taft-Hartley Act by assigning the work in question to one of the contending unions. The Court, rejecting the Board's contention that Congress did not intend to provide for compulsory determination of jurisdictional disputes, found that the Congress had intended by the words of section 10(k) "hear and determine the dispute" to provide a method to settle jurisdictional disputes and that this normally would require a decision as to which of the parties is entitled to the work.

Among other far-reaching Supreme Court decisions were the four which ruled that the NLRB had gone beyond the intent of the Taft-Hartley Act in regulating union security arrangements. The Court nullified the Mountain Pacific doctrine

which set forth the rule that hiring-hall agreements to be legal must include prescribed clauses guaranteeing fair treatment to nonunion members.10 It also denied the Brown-Olds dues refund remedy in a case where there was no evidence that workers had been coerced by an illegal hiring agreement into paying union dues and fees, saying that dues refund in such a case was punitive and beyond the Board's power." The other two decisions 12 involved the relationship between the International Typographical Union's general laws and its collective bargaining contracts. One upheld a provision incorporating into the contract those general laws which were not in conflict with Federal law. The other held that it was not illegal to strike for such a provision, but on a collateral point of whether a strike to obtain a clause requiring that hiring be done by foremen who were union members was illegal, the Court divided equally and thus affirmed the lower court's ruling that a strike over obtaining the latter clause was illegal.

The Supreme Court construed 13 the 1951 unionshop amendment to the Railway Labor Act as forbidding a union to use dues and fees-exacted from a member who is required to maintain membership as a condition of employment-for political purposes to which the member objects. However, the Court emphasized that its decision neither outlawed the union shop nor prohibited the use of union funds for political purposes.

The National Labor Relations Board. The NLRB, in four cases decided on February 20, set out some guideposts as to what kind of picketing is illegal under the recognition and organizational picketing provisions (section 8(b) (7) (C)) of the 1959 amendments to the Taft-Hartley Act. The Board ruled that the section permits only a union "currently certified" to engage in recognition picketing and makes no exception for a majority union lacking such certification.14 Picketing to inform the public was held to be illegal unless that is its sole purpose, and even then it is illegal if it results. in the halting of deliveries to a struck firm.16 Finally, picketing to compel hiring of a predecessor's employees was held to be illegal when the union is not certified to represent those currently employed and is not seeking an election.17

The NLRB first asserted jurisdiction in a "runaway shipping" case with its West India Fruit and Steamship Co. decision on February 16,18 in

which the ship was owned by a corporation whose officers and stockholders were U.S. citizens, but was registered in another country and was manned by nonresident foreign nationals.

Reversing a ruling it had handed down in February, the Board in late September held that the agency shop is a lawful form of union security under the Labor Management Relations Act and therefore a mandatory bargaining issue in Indiana, where State courts have interpreted the "right-towork" law to permit the agency shop.19 Under the September decision, the General Motors Corp. was required to bargain the agency shop issue for its Indiana plants with the United Auto Workers, which had requested reconsideration of the case.

In October, the Board reversed its earlier decision in the Calumet case.20 Although again finding that the objective of the union's picketing was to force the employer to meet the prevailing conditions of employment in his area, the Board held that this was not tantamount to an objective of recognition or bargaining and was, therefore, legal.

On November 22, the NLRB overturned the Keystone doctrine and held that only a union security clause clearly unlawful on its face or one which has been found unlawful in an unfair labor practice proceeding will be held no bar to an election. requested by a union rival to the one holding the current contract.21 The Board said that the former rule gave a presumption of illegality with respect to any contract containing a security clause which did not expressly reflect the precise language of the law.

10 Local 357, International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. NLRB (U.S. Sup. Ct., Apr. 17, 1961).

11 Local 60, United Brotherhood of Carpenters v. NLRB (U.S. Sup. Ct., Apr. 17, 1961).

12 News Syndicate Co. v. NLRB (U.S. Sup. Ct., Apr. 17, 1961) and Locals $8 and 165, International Typographical Union v. NLRB (U.S. Sup. Ct., Apr. 17, 1961.)

13 International Association of Machinists v. Street (U.S. Sup. Ct., June 19, 1961).

14 Local 840, International Hod Carriers and C. A. Blinne Construction Co. (130 NLRB No. 69).

18 Local Joint Executive Board of Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Crown Cafeteria (130 NLRB No. 68).

16 Local 89 and Local 1, Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Stork Restaurant (130 NLRB No. 67).

17 Local 705, International Brotherhood of Teamsters and Cartage and Terminal Management Corp. (130 NLRB No. 70).

18 West India Fruit and Steamship Co. and Atlantic & Gulf District, Seafarers' International Union (130 NLRB No. 46).

19 General Motors Corp. and United Automobile Workers (133 NLRB No. 21, Sept. 29, 1961).

20 Local 41, International Hod Carriers and Calumet Construction (133 NLRB No. 57).

21 Paragon Products Corp. and District 50, United Mine Workers (134 NLRB No. 86).

Marital and Family Characteristics of Workers, March 1961

JACOB SCHIFFMAN*

PERSISTENTLY HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT during 1961 has focused increasing attention on the characteristics of the unemployed: their age, marital status, and sex, the areas, industries, and occupations in which they worked, and the duration of their joblessness. This information is essential for an evaluation of the social cost of unemployment. For example, the unemployment of married men, with family responsibilities, is obviously a much more serious problem then the unemployment of high school and college students seeking summer work-though finding a job is nonetheless very important to them.

While considerable data on the characteristics of the unemployed are collected and published each month, additional detailed information on the marital and family status of the unemployedand the employed-are made available once a year, recently in March, permitting a closer look at these important characteristics of the country's work force.

total; nearly one-fourth had husbands who were either unemployed or were not in the labor force because of reasons such as disability or retirement. Another 30 percent of the unemployed were either widowed, divorced, or separated persons or were single adults 20 years of age and over. Many of these persons, too, help support their families. Single teenagers, who are less likely to have these family responsibilities, accounted for 14 percent of the jobless total.

All marital groups had higher rates of unemployment in March 1961 than a year earlier and considerably higher rates than in March 1957, prior to the 1958 recession. The widespread nature of these increases indicates that the rise in the overall rate of unemployment since 1957 resulted primarily from unsatisfactory business conditions, which affected all groups in the working population, and not from changes in the composition of the working population. Available data do not

*Of the Division of Manpower and Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

1 The analysis is based primarily on information from supplementary questions in the March 1961 monthly survey of the labor force, conducted for the Bureau of Labor Statistics by the Bureau of the Census through its Current Population Survey.

An article based on the 1960 survey appeared in the April 1961 issue of the Monthly Labor Review (issued as Special Labor Force Report No. 13). Earlier surveys on the marital and family characteristics of workers were summarized in the March and August 1960 issues of the Review (Special Labor Force Reports Nos. 2 and 7, respectively) and in the Bureau of the Census Current Population Reports, Series P-50, Nos. 5, 11, 22, 29, 39, 44, 50, 62, 73, 76, 81, and 87. Additional related information can be found in Current Population Reports, Series P-20.

Data presented here relate primarily to the population 14 years of age and over, including inmates of institutions. Members of the Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post (1,055,000 in March 1961) are included, but all other members of the Armed Forces are excluded.

References to married persons relate to those living in the same household as the spouse, unless otherwise stated. The discussion on families relates only to husband-wife families.