products industries had the highest ratio-6.4 percent--but this was also influenced by their higher ratio for workmen's compensation (2.4 percent of gross payroll). The next highest ratios were 5.3 and 5.1 percent reported by the apparel and the leather industries, both of which are among the relatively lower paying groups.

Private Welfare Plans. Most of the 5.4 percent of gross payroll contributed for private welfare plans went into health, accident, and life insurance (2.1 percent) and pension and retirement plans (2.4 percent). Of the remaining 0.9 percent, yearend and Christmas bonuses accounted for more than half, with the rest spread over vacation and holiday funds, supplemental unemployment benefits, severance or dismissal pay, and savings and thrift plans. On a cents-per-hour-paid-for basis, these contributions totaled 12.1 cents, with 4.7 cents going into health, accident, and life insurance, 5.4 cents into pensions, 1.1 cents into bonuses, and less than 1 cent into the remaining five plans.

Industry expenditures for private welfare plans were for the most part related to the level of average hourly earnings, possibly reflecting differences in industry's ability to pay and workers' willingness to accept supplementary benefits in lieu of direct wage increases. The expenditure ratios ranged from 2.4 to 3.4 percent of production worker gross payroll in the lumber, textiles, apparel, and leather industries to 12.2 percent in the petroleum refining group. Petroleum's expenditure rate was raised well above that of the other groups by its relatively high expenditures for pensions and savings and thrift plans.

Variations by region were confined within much narrower limits, ranging from 4.4 percent in the West to 5.8 percent in the North Central region. Expenditures averaged 4.8 percent of gross pay in the South and 5.5 in the Northeast.

Other Expenditure Ratios

Expenditures for the several supplements were also tabulated as percentages of the straight-time payroll for production workers and in terms of cents per plant hour. Compared with the ratios. based on gross payrolls, those based on straight

time payroll, which more nearly indicate the relationship between the several expenditures and the regular pay of workers, were, of course, slightly higher, averaging 6.3 percent for paid leave, 4.5 percent for premium pay, 4.7 percent for legally required payments, and 5.6 percent for private welfare plans. Rates per plant hour relate the expenditures only to those hours the worker was under the establishment's immediate supervision. They amounted to: paid leave, 14.3 cents; premium pay, 10.3 cents; legally required, 10.7 cents; and private welfare plans, 12.9 cents.

Influence of Establishment Characteristics

To determine what relationships existed between expenditures and certain establishment characteristics, expenditure-payroll ratios were computed for each supplement for all establishments with the given characteristic (whether or not they had expenditures). For most supplements, average expenditure ratios were higher for the classes of establishments (1) with higher average hourly earnings, (2) with larger numbers of employees, (3) with a majority of employees covered by collective bargaining agreements, and (4) with a metropolitan area location. (See table 3.) The principal exception was expenditures for legally required payments, where the opposite relationships generally held true. It is difficult to ascertain the relative contribution of

the individual characteristic to the level of expenditures because these relationships are the results of the interplay of these and other factors.

Three average hourly earnings groups, each containing approximately one-third of the establishments, were used in examining the relationships between expenditure ratios and earnings. In the lower paying establishments, paid leave expenditures averaged 3.4 percent of gross payroll; in the middle third, the average was 5.1 percent; and in the top third, 6.8 percent. For premium pay, the expenditure ratios rose from 3.2 to 4.0 to 4.7 percent of production worker payroll as average hourly earnings increased; for private welfare plans, the ratios were 2.7, 4.3, and 6.3 percent, respectively. In contrast, the lower paying establishments' expenditures of 5.5 percent for legally required insurance were 0.5 percentage points above those for the middle third and 1.4 percentage points above those for the higher paying ones.

Three categories were also used to examine the relationships between expenditure ratios and establishment size. Paid leave expenditures were 4.3 percent of the gross payroll of establishments with under 100 employees. Those with 100 to 499 employees had expenditures of 5.3 percent, and

those with at least 500 employees, 7.0 percent. As size of establishment increased, expenditures for premium pay rose from 3.7 to 4.1 to 4.7 percent and for private welfare plans from 3.4 to 4.6 to 6.6 percent, but employers' contributions for legally required insurance declined (5.2, 4.8, and 4.1 percent). Premium pay for late shift work was the principal element in the rise in the expenditure ratio for premium pay as establishment size increased; in fact, the ratio for this item was almost six times greater in the largest establishments than in the smallest. Although the ratio for each of the legally required items had some tendency to decline with increases in size of establishment, the overall decline was attributable primarily to workmen's compensation, which was less than half as much in the largest firms as in the smallest.

Classifying establishments by metropolitan and nonmetropolitan area location produced average paid leave expenditures of 6.3 percent of the gross payroll of production workers in metropolitan areas and 5.1 percent for those in nonmetropolitan areas. A similar relationship existed for private welfare plans, with establishments in the metropolitan areas averaging 5.7 percent of gross payroll, or 1.1 percentage points more than those in the nonmetropolitan areas. There was virtually no

difference in expenditures for premium pay-4.3 percent for metropolitan areas versus 4.4 for nonmetropolitan-but expenditures for legally required benefits were greater in nonmetropolitan areas (4.7 percent) than in the metropolitan areas (4.4 percent). The last relationship probably reflects lower earnings levels in nonmetropolitan

areas.

A considerably greater proportion of production worker gross payroll was expended for paid leave and private welfare plans by establishments with a majority of workers covered by collective bargaining agreements than by those which had none or a minority covered. For paid leave, the ratios were 6.5 versus 4.5 percent and for private welfare plans, 5.8 versus 4.3 percent. The organized establishments also had larger expenditures for premium pay-4.4 percent, compared with 4.1 percent for those with none or a minority under agreements. The opposite relationship existed for legally required benefits, where those with a majority under agreement averaged 4.4 percent of production worker gross payroll, or 0.4 percentage points more than those with none or a minority covered.

Composition of Payroll Hours

As paid leave has increased in prevalence and scope, a growing gap has developed between hours paid for and hours spent at the plant. In 1959, of the hours paid for in all manufacturing establishments, 94.1 percent were hours at the plant and 5.9 percent were hours away from the plant, including 3.4 percent for vacations, 0.2 percent for sick leave, 2.2 percent for holidays, and the remainder for military, jury, witness, voting, and personal leave. (See table 4.) Variations in plant hours by region were limited; the averages for three of the four broad economic regions were about equal to that for the United States, with the average for the South 1.4 percentage points higher. The plant hour ratios by industry group ranged from 89.3 percent (petroleum) to 97.1 percent (lumber and wood products). Only in the petroleum group did leave hours account for more than 10 percent of hours paid for.

-ENZO A. PUGLISI Division of Wages and Industrial Relations

622604-62-4

A total of 157,000 professional personnel were employed in the life and physical sciences, engi

1 "Scientists and Engineers Employed at Colleges and Universities, 1958" (NSF Scientific Manpower Bull. 13, July 1961). The study was based on a survey of scientific research and development at institutions of higher edu. cation in 1957-58, conducted for the NSF by the U.S. Office of Education. Additional data from the survey are reported in Reviews of Data on Research and Development (NSF Bull. 27, 1961), which concentrates on the research activities of personnel employed by the 377 institutions which reported separately budgeted research expenditures. A comprehensive report on the survey will be issued later.

The difference between the figure of 311,000 for professional personnel, appearing in this article, and that of 345,000 reported by the Office of Education in Faculty and Other Professional Staff in Institutions of Higher Education, First Term, 1967-58 (OE Circular 596, September 1959) is due to a slightly different definition of "other" professional personnel and to coverage of different time periods within the 1957-58 academic year.

2 The universe of the survey was the 1,937 institutions reported in the U.S. Office of Education's Education Directory, 1957–58, Part III, Higher Education. Two agricultural experiment stations (not part of any institution) were added to this list. A total of 23 institutions were excluded from the survey. The remaining 1,916 institutions were surveyed by means of mail questionnaires. Of the institutions questioned, 1,480 returned usable manpower information, making a response rate of 72.5 percent. The Office of Education, using data from its own surveys and those obtained from the American Council of Education, was able to develop reasonably accurate estimates for the nonresponding institutions.

all institutions reporting, but employed nearly 50 percent of the faculty in all fields (table 1). Only one other type of institution employed more than 10 percent of all faculty-the liberal arts colleges, which reported 25 percent of the faculty and accounted for nearly 40 percent of the institutions. Junior colleges represented about 25 percent of all institutions of higher education but employed less than 10 percent of all faculty. All other types of institutions combined employed only about 15 percent.

Forty-seven percent of the reported faculty were employed as scientists and engineers. Only three types of institutions had more than half of their faculty members employed in science and engineering-universities, technological schools, and technical institutes.

A much higher degree of concentration in universities was found for nonfaculty personnel than

was true for faculty members. Universities reported 80 percent of all nonfaculty personnel. Only two other types of institutions employed more than 5 percent of the total; liberal arts colleges reported 8 percent, and technological schools reported 6 percent.

Since the majority of the nonfaculty group was composed of researchers, it is not surprising to find 57 percent of them employed in the fields of science and engineering. Further, more than 60 percent of nonfaculty personnel in universities and nearly 90 percent in technological schools were in science and engineering disciplines.

The distribution of faculty members by institutional enrollment size was relatively even, increasing in proportion to the enrollment size, while that of the institutions ran in a reverse order and was concentrated at small-sized categories. Hence, a small number of large institutions accounted for a great proportion of faculty members. Institutions with enrollments below 1,000 employed one-fifth of all faculty and accounted for nearly two-thirds of all responding institutions (table 2). The institutions with enrollments between 1,000 and 4,999 reported about one-fourth

of the faculty members and represented about one-fourth of the institutions. The three largestsized categories each employed between about one-sixth and one-fifth of all faculty-a total well over half-and together accounted for less than one-tenth of the institutions.

The distribution of faculty by enrollment size and field indicates a concentration in and emphasis upon science and engineering at the larger institutions. The 15 institutions with enrollments over 20,000 employed over 55 percent of their faculties in these fields. In the smallest enrollment-size category, the institutions reported only 30 percent of their faculties employed in the sciences and engineering.

The nonfaculty personnel exhibited the same pattern of size distribution except that its concentration was more pronounced. The largest 15 schools reported nearly 30 percent of the nonfaculty personnel, whereas the smallest enrollment-size category, with one-fifth of the institutions, reported less than 2 percent of the persons in this category.

Science and Engineering Personnel

Employment Distribution. As was shown in the previous section, the science and engineering faculties at institutions of higher education tend to be concentrated in the larger institutions, and this concentration is even greater with respect to nonfaculty.

About 40 percent of all professional science and engineering personnel were life scientists; physical scientists accounted for approximately 25 percent, and engineers and social scientists each represented less than 20 percent. Slightly over three-fifths of all scientists and engineers held faculty rank; only in the social sciences was the proportion as high as four-fifths. The numbers of professional science and engineering personnel employed by field, are shown in the following tabulation: