might not be very useful. Therefore, the membership of the ad hoc panel was deliberately selected to secure diversity of viewpoint, and each member of the panel addressed himself individually to the two questions. The report contains a summary of the similarities and differences of the members' views on the two questions, but a complete reading of the report is necessary to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the magnitude of the issue.

The lucid comments of the panel have proved invaluable to the committee, and the report became a classic in achieving a better understanding of the relationship between basic science and public policy. Over 8,000 copies of the report have been distributed in the United States and in Europe. The report also is being used as a textbook by a number of colleges and universities.

Government, Science, and Public Policy

In view of the broad interest generated as a result of the Academy's report on "Basic Research and National Goals," the committee decided that it would be fitting to delve further into the general question of science and public policy during the 7th annual meeting of the committee's Panel on Science and Technology, held on January 25-27, 1966.16

As was the custom at the previous meeting of the panel, over 150 special invited guests representing Government, industry, and the universities attended the sessions and were invited to participate in the discussions.

Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey made the keynote address calling for a better understanding between science and Government and advocating the use of our scientific and technological knowledge to eradicate many of the problems facing our modern-day society. Seven papers were presented during the panel meeting. The opening paper entitled "Government, Science and Public Policy" was delivered by Lord Snow, Joint Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Technology, British Government. A scientist by training, Lord Snow is well known as a novelist, lecturer, and commentator on the contemporary scene. In 1960 he delivered the Godkin Lectures at Harvard University which were later published in book form entitled "Science and Government."

Other papers presented during the panel meeting were: "The Role of Government in Science Education" by Dr. Lee A. DuBridge, president, California Institute of Technology; "Federal Funds and Science Education" by Gerard Piel, publisher, Scientific American; "Science and Social Change" by Dr. Roger Revelle, director, Center for Population Studies, Harvard University; "The Structure and Synthesis of Living Systems" by Dr. Charles C. Price, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania; "Toward a Strategy for the Application of Science and Technology to Economic Growth" by Dr. Thomas F. Malone, director of research, Travelers Insurance Cos.; and "Value Added-Through Science" by Dr. C. Guy Suits, vice president and director of research (retired), General Electric Co.

The subject matter and the caliber of thinking contained in these papers created such a demand for reprints that the committee sought,

16"Panel on Science and Technology-7th Meeting," proceedings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 89th Cong., second sess. (1966).

and was granted, special permission of the House of Representatives to reprint a compilation of the papers presented at the meeting.17

Applied Science and Technological Progress

The National Academy of Sciences submitted a second report1s in May 1967. It was published by the committee in June of that year. This survey sought to identify and analyze various facets of fundamental research vis-a-vis applied research and technology, in addition to factors which the Government should consider in determining support therefor.

The committee sought answers to the following questions: 1. Is applied science effective?

2. Are we getting our money's worth?

3. Are there ways to improve it?

4. What is the proper role of the Government laboratory, industry, the universities?

5. What should Congress itself do to strengthen our country's capacity to achieve its many goals through the application of science? An ad hoc Panel of Applied Science and Technological Progress of the Academy was appointed which consisted of 20 members under the chairmanship of Dr. Harvey Brooks from Harvard University.

This report dealt with the special problems of effective application of the resources of science to advances in technology. Because applied research is more complex and diverse in its goals, its standards, and its style than basic research, the components of the report tend to confront each other rather more sharply than did those of basic research and national goals. The various views fall generally into groups. dealing with (1) the nature and strategy of applied research, (2) the environment and institutions in which applied research is carried out, (3) the individual scientist and the role of the Federal Government. The report is a significant milestone in Congress' method of gathering talented, objective assistance to its use. Over 10,000 copies of the report have been distributed or sold by the Government Printing Officeand, like its predecessor, the report is widely used as a text throughout the American college system.

On May 25, 1967, Dr. Frederick Seitz, President of the National Academy of Sciences, and the members of the ad hoc Panel of Applied Science and Technological Progress presented the report to the full committee. The public discussion 19 made at that time has been published.

Reallocation of Federal Science Resources

Chariman Emilio Q. Daddario of the Science Subcommittee brought up with the Research Management Advisory Panel on September 25, 1967, the question of the reallocation of Federal science resources. A critical inventory of major laboratories which could be redeployed in part or whole to meet the new requirements for scientific and technical services in the Nation seemed pertinent. Therefore, it was decided that a study should be made to produce recommendations

17" Government, Science, and Public Policy," compilation of papers prepared for the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 89th Cong., second sess. (committee print, 1966).

"Applied Science and Technological Progress," report by the National Academy of Sciences to the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., first sess. (committee print, 1967).

15 "Presentation of Report by Special Panel on Applied Science and Technological Progress of the National Academy of Sciences" hearings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., first sess. (committee print, 1967).

on the use and possible reallocation of money, manpower, and facilities in view of the stabilized Federal research and development budget.

The subcommittee's interest is due to a variety of factors. Since the Federal Government has a tremendous investment in laboratory facilities and trained manpower and since our resources assignable to science and technology are not limitless, the continuing demands for new research and development must be accommodated within these limits. The subcommittee is interested in the policy guidelines that govern agency decisions in this area, and how existing competence can be applied to new areas of opportunity. In 1967, the National Academy of Sciences report entitled "Applied Science and Technological Progress" concluded that the "applied research establishments of the Federal Government should be examined for redeployment in the light of changing national needs." Its recommendation, which was endorsed by the Academy's Committee on Science and Public Policy, proposes that programs and organizational location of Federal laboratories should be examined at intervals to determine whether the maturity of their original missions would justify some reassignment of effort to emerging problems of national interest.

Utilization of Federal Laboratories

The preceding recommendation suggests that a new relationship between science, technology, and Government is developing and that thorough attention will have to be given to the allocation of scarce resources among important, competing demands.

Consequently, 6 days of hearings 20 on Federal laboratories were held by the subcommittee during March and April 1968. The testimony highlighted the present Federal policy for use of Government laboratories and was directed toward a better understanding of the opportunities and problems involved. A report 21 was issued on October 14, 1968.

Science, Technology, and Public Policy During the 89th Congress

The subcommittee requested the Science Policy Research Division of the Library of Congress to undertake a collation of the major Government-science relationships and activities which had developed during the 89th Congress. A report 22 was published on July 10, 1967. This report did not treat the totality of Federal scientific and technological activity, but it showed the range and variety of additions to and changes in what constitutes science policy. To keep the report within reasonable bounds, the material included is limited to legislation, congressional hearings, and reports; Executive orders, directives, and reports; and notable reports of advisory groups. It did not include or examine interpretative writings.

The chairman of the subcommittee in his letter of transmittal to chairman, House Committee on Science and Astronautics, the Honorable George P. Miller, on June 7, 1967, stated:

To my mind the report is one of the more revealing and significant documents to emerge from the legislative branch in contemporary times. For it suggests how

20"Utilization of Federal Laboratories," hearings before the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., second sess. (1968).

21" Utilization of Federal Laboratories," report of Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., second sess. (committee print, 1968).

22 Science, Technology, and Public Policy During the 89th Congress," report of Science Policy Research Division, Library of Congress, to the Supcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., first sess. (committee print, 1967).

strongly science and technology is being latticed into the structure of government and into the patterns of everyday American life. From the report comes explicit evidence that science, in its broadest terms, is now one of the largest, most powerful, and most important forces with which the Congress must deal. Virtually every facet of our national endeavor, the study discloses, is touched by science, as is almost every component of Government policy and decisionmaking.

Two other points should be emphasized.

First, the report is a graphic demonstration of the fact that Congress does indeed recognize the impact of science and technology on modern society and is moving expeditiously to meet its challenge and shape its potential on behalf of human welfare.

Second, the report is equally clear in revealing that Congress is becoming aware of the difficulties and dangers which technological-applied science may carry in its I genes and is searching for effective means to counter them.

Both are crucial within the developing Government-science complex.

The demand for this report was such that it had to be reprinted. It suggested the value of follow-on reports to help Congress keep its finger on the pulse of policy actions-bills, hearings, laws, reports, directives, plans-that affect application of science and technology. Thus the subcommittee has requested that similar reports be prepared on a continuing basis.

Science, Technology, and Public Policy During the 90th Congress, First Session

On May 22, 1968, the first of the follow-on series was published. This report 23 covered 1967. Its organization is somewhat different from the previous report of the 89th Congress in order to concur with recommendations made for improvement by specific executive departments and agencies. Items relating to basic research are not separate but are included in the leadoff chapter on science, technology, and national goals. Another change is the emphasis on the means by which the applications of science and technology are governed.

The report illuminated the two faces of governing science and technology: Fostering science and technology, their resources and applications; and controlling, regulating those applications which interact so strongly with the public interest that Government action becomes necessary. The discussion of these two facts in one report helped the subcommittee realize how widespread is the responsibility of the legislative branch.

SCIENCE EDUCATION

It has been pointed out in the foregoing that the subcommittee entered into an agreement with the National Science Foundation in March 1964 whereby the Foundation would conduct studies into three phases of science education in the United States. These studies were to indicate, among other things, what has happened to American science education during this century; where the country now stands in regard to this critical phase of our technological revolution; what serious problems the future is likely to impose on science education; and what must be done now and in the future to overcome the discernible difficulties. Science Education in the Schools of the United States

This report,24 which was transmitted to the subcommittee in

23"Science, Technology, and Public Policy During the 90th Congress, First Session," report of Science Policy Research Division, Library of Congress, to the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., second sess. (committee print, 1968). "Science Education in the Schools of the United States," report of the National Science Foundation to the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 89th Cong., first sess. (committee print, 1965).

March 1965, describes the present status of science education in the elementary and secondary schools of the Nation. It includes a description of historical events and conditions that have led to the present situation, as well as a discussion of problems and issues whose solutions will influence and even determine the future state of science education in the United States.

The report clearly illustrates that any nation wishing to survive in this modern world must equip its citizenry with the knowledge and skills demanded by our scientific and technological age and with the understanding to cope with future technological developments. The position of the United States, as the leader of the free world, is dependent upon how well we are able to provide our people with the intellectual tools demanded by our increasingly complex technological society.

This is the task now facing both scientists and educators. For the past decade or so both have been probing the Nation's educational system and making thoughtful efforts toward improvement. Primary emphasis has been placed on cooperative efforts of scientists and educators to improve elementary and secondary school education in science.

Higher Education in the Sciences in the United States

This report,25 the second in the series dealing with science education, was transmitted to the subcommittee in August 1965. The report deals with advanced science education-science education as carried on in the colleges and universities at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Following an introductory chapter which surveys advanced education in general (that is, is not restricted to science alone), the report considers undergraduate science education as it exists now, some of the present and future problems and needs of undergraduate science education, the present situation in graduate science education, and some of the problems of graduate science education. One aspect of particular importance discussed in the report is the future of science in the small liberal arts college, and in particular the problem of acquiring adequate facilities and teachers with a limited amount of funds. As in the case of the previous report on science education in elementary and secondary schools, the Foundation offers no panacea to the various problems in higher education and there probably is no simple solution. Yet, the report is valuable because if a start is to be made toward resolving the difficulties brought out, it must be done with a vigorous imagination that is based on a full knowledge of the situation as it now exists.

The Junior College and Education in the Sciences

This report,26 the third and last in the series dealing with science education, focuses attention on education in the sciences in the junior and community colleges of the United States.

Because of the distinctive and heterogeneous nature of the junior college, the report is a series of selective "snapshots," each of which

25"Higher Education in the Sciences in the United States," report of the National Science Foundation to the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 89th Cong., first sess. (committee print, 1965).

26 The Junior College and Education in Sciences," report of the National Science Founation to the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Development of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, 90th Cong., first sess. (committee print, 1967).