37.Michigan Medicine. “The Michigan Physician and His Continuing Education," Nov. 1970. "The Michigan Physician: His Work Needs and Opportunities," Dec. 1970. "The Michigan Physician's Use and Evaluation of His Medical Journal," Jan. 1971. "The Michigan Physician: His Use and Evaluation of the Professional Meeting and (Postgraduate) PG Courses," Feb. 1971. "The Michigan Physician: His Education Through Face to Face Contacts and Technical Media," March 1971. "The Michigan Physician: His Perception of Competence, Worries and Obsolescence,” April 1971. "The Michigan Physician and Continuing Education: Looking to the Future," May 1971. "The Michigan Physician and His Continuing Education: Summary and Conclusions," June 1971. 38. Miller, George E. "Continuing Education for What?" Journal of Medical Education. Vol. 42, April 1967. pp. 320-323. 39. Nakamoto, June and Verner, Coolie. Continuing Education in the Health Professions: A Review of the Literature 1960-1970. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Education, Syracuse, N.Y. 1973. 40. Neuhouser, Duncan. The Relationship Between Administrative Activities and Hospital Performance. Univ. of Chicago. Center for Health Administration Studies. Chicago, Ill. 1971. 41. Niles, Anne, Cooper, Signe S. and Asthana, Martha. Definitive Dialing: Nursing Dial Access. Univ. of Wisconsin, Department of Nursing, University Extension, Madison, Wis. 1970. 42. Niles, Anne. “Dial-a-Tape for Continuing Education.” NUEA Spectator. March 1972. 43. Patient Care. "Your Practice Skills and Deficits" and "Which Conditions Occupy Most of Your Time?" May 15, 1971. pp. 39-149. 44.Patient Care. "From West Virginia: The Doctor's Office Becomes His Classroom." Patient Care. May 30, 1971. pp. 39-43. 45. Phaneuf, Maria C. The Nursing Audit: Profile for Excellence. Appleton-Century Crofts, N.Y. 1972. 46. Rogers, Everett M. and Shoemaker, F. Floyd. Communication of Innovations: A Cross-Cultural Approach. The Free Press, N.Y. 1971. 476 p. 47. 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DHEW Publication No. HSM-71-7010. Center for Continuing Education, Univ. of Chicago. Chicago, Ill. 1971. 235 p. 63. Wagner, Carruth J. “A Systems Approach to Health Planning,” in Planning for Health: Report on the 1967 National Health Forum National Health Forum. Chicago, Ill. 1967. 64. Williamson, John W. Alexander, Marshall, and Miller, George E. "Priorities in Patient-Care Research and Continuing Medical Education.” Journal of the American Medical Association. Oct. 25, 1971. pp. 564-569. Life-Long Self-Directed Education By Alan B. Knox Professor of Adult Education, PART ONE: CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION Professionals in the health sciences such as medicine, nursing, dentistry, public health, medical social work, pharmacy and clinical psychology, apply their competence (knowledge and skill) to help people maintain and reestablish health. Practitioners in other helping professions such as teaching, ministry and law, also apply their competence to deal with other complex problems. Because the requirements of competence, the nature of the problems and the interface between them are constantly changing - and at an accelerating rate continuing education is an essential ingredient of both preparatory professional education and the maintenance of professional competence58, p. 16; 29, p. 562; 48, p. 8; 40, p. 123 Relations Between Education and Practice Most professional problems are problems of the application of knowledge and skills to decisions and actions for which the professionals are personally accountable. This is a major reason why continuing professional education is largely self-directed29, p. 568; 40, p. 125 The purpose of continuing education for health professionals is the improvement of patient care and health maintenance, and the enrichment of health careers19. The focus should be on the patient as a problem of treatment and as an exercise in learning42, p. 111. The basic criterion for the evaluation of the relevance and effectiveness of continuing education for health professionals is the improvement of patient care40, p. 123. However, professional competence has several dimensions - scientific and technological, and also personal and societal. Continuing education to maintain competence takes time, which is the professional's most precious resource, and it also takes many other kinds of resources. A limitation of selfeducation is that it can easily be short-sighted. This situation presents a challenge to those who would develop programs of continuing professional education. Some factors facilitate program development, others are barriers. Some resources are local, others are not available locally. The challenge is to strengthen the facilitating factors and weaken the barriers, and to make resources over large areas both known and used. The facilitators of continuing education are associated with the personal characteristics of the individual professional, his profession, and the societal setting in which he functions. The facilitators associated with personal characteristics include: (1) the high level of communication ability of professionals compared with most other adults. (2) the extent to which the professional has developed a questioning and problem-solving orientation, (3) the recognition that people forget much that is not used or reviewed, and (4) the extent to which the professional has learned how to effectively learn from unfamiliar material and from mistakes. The facilitators associated with the characteristics of the profession include: (1) the centrality of life-long learning in the definition of a profession, (2) the changes in the roles of many health professionals, (3) the shifting scientific base with increased emphasis on the social and behavioral sciences and a greater focus on aspects of biological and physical sciences that are pertinent to clinical practice, and (4) the conviction that the elapsed time should be shortened between the completion of secondary school and entry full-time into professional practice. The facilitators associated with the characteristics of the societal setting include: (1) the rapid increase in pertinent knowledge which produces obsoles cence, (2) the continuing developments in technology related to the health professions, (3) the major changes in a competitive pharmaceutical industry which makes it important for the professional to place a premium on impartial information, (4) the extension of collaborative regional arrangements for health manpower, and (5) the stronger public image of continuing education which results from the expanding number of programs. The barriers to continuing education are associated with the personal characteristics of the individual professional, his profession, and previous programs of continuing education. The barriers associated with personal characteristics include: (1) the image from preparatory education that education is passive reception of information from experts. (2) the difficulty that the professional encounters when he tries to break habit patterns and a life-style that have excluded continuing education, and |