Diesel engines of American design and manufacture. The cost of manufacture of this type of engine is now be ing reduced, making it possible for the ship owner to take advantage of the extreme economy in fuel secured by the Diesel principle. Submarines.-During the year not only has the submarine attracted much attention due to its activities as a naval weapon, but much interest has been shown in the spectacular performance of the German submarine cargo vessel Deutschland, which made a successful initial voyage from Bremen, reaching Baltimore on July 9 and in October made another voyage from Bremen to New London. The details regarding dimensions, nature of construction, speed submerged and afloat, and possible cargo-carrying capacity of this vessel are naturally difficult of exact determination, and the various reports published have been exceedingly conflicting. In this connection the following quotation from The Submarine Torpedo Book by Allen Hoar is interesting: To those familiar with this type of craft there is nothing remarkable in just the mere mileage covered by the Deutschland on this voyage, but the performance of this vessel is spectacular because it has succeeded in leaving a well blockaded port and traversed waters abounding in hostile craft undetected to the end. It is very difficult at this time to obtain any exact or reliable information as to the real dimensions of this vessel. It has been variously given out in widely conflicting statements, purporting to have been uttered by Captain Koenig, as from 200 to 315 ft. in length. 20 to 30 ft. in breadth and from 1,000 to 4,000 tons in displacement. There seems to be little doubt, however, from what reliable information can be had, that this vessel submarines laid down by Germany in is of the same general type as those the early part of 1914. the principal characteristics of which are given in the appendix, as 214 ft. in length, 20 ft. beam and 900 tons submerged displacement. A boat of this size, if stripped of all torpedo tubes, torpedoes and handling gear, and with weight of power plant restricted to a capacity for 14 knots on the surface and 10 knots submerged. would afford a net cargo tonnage of about 75 to 100 tons. This is a practical illustration of the possibilities for new uses of the submarine as a blockade runner on Government enterprise. Owing to the extremely limited possibilities for carrying cargo in this type of vessel, it is evident that their use in a commercial way is only possible under such conditions as exist at the present due to the state of war in Europe, and that the only cargoes which may be carried are those of extremely high value and requiring small stowage capacity. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS Importance of Fabricating Methods. -Technical papers published in 1916, reporting the results of experiments having to do with the physical properties of metals and alloys, reflect the increasing recognition of the fact that fabricating methods frequently have more to do in determining physical characteristics than has chemical composition. Specifications for this class of materials are imposing stricter conditions relative to the details of manufacture. R. ganese bronze has greater tensile resistance, aluminium bronze is superior in enduring alternating stresses. The Eighth Report of the Alloys Research Committee of the British Institution of Mechanical Engineers is quoted as checking their results, and as also explaining the combination in aluminium bronze of a low yield point in tension and high endurance to alternating stresses. The authors describe in detail a method of heat treatment by means of which the proportional limit of a 10 per cent. aluminium bronze is materially raised without great loss of ductility. Aluminium Bronze. William Gorse and G. F. Comstock (Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mats., xvi, 1916) report the results of a series of tests on bronzes Brass. A paper on "Recrystallizaand discuss their significance. Ten- tion of Cold Worked Alpha Brass on sion and endurance tests with the Annealing." by C. H. Matthewson and Landgraf-Turner and White-South- Arthur Phillips (Bull. Am. Inst. Min. er machines made upon specimens of Engrs., Jan., 1916), reports the remanganese bronze and aluminium sults of an extended series of experibronze indicate that although man-ments on a 70-copper: 30-zinc brass having low impurities. The authors (1) show by physical tests the general direction and magnitude of changes induced by heating cold-rolled strips below an effective annealing temperature; (2) determine the periods of time necessary to produce a measur able amount of softening in one kind of strain-hardened material using temperatures below the regions of rapid effects; (3) give the microscopic aspects of strain-hardening and recrystallization in metal which has received both light and heavy reductions by rolling; (4) show the relations between temperature, time of anneal, degree of alteration, and structural alteration in alpha brass; and (5) give comparisons between the ordinary physical properties and grain size when taken as functions of the annealing temperature for a fixed period of anneal. The tabulated results are too extensive for presentation here. The research is one deserving of careful study by metallurgists and those interested in the manufacture and use of brass products. Brass Condenser Tubes.-The results of a series of experiments conducted on brass condenser tubes with the view of discovering an explanation for the splitting which is found to take place in condenser tubes in service, will be found in a paper by A. E. White (Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mats., xvi, 1916). The experiments seem to indicate that the cause of splitting could not be laid to the chemical composition of the tubes but is due rather to faulty manufacture. It is stated that excessive pinching during drawing, with insufficient annealing between drawings, are responsible for the trouble. If a tube is drawn too much, or if a tube is drawn properly but not sufficiently annealed, the metal is caused to be in a state of molecular strain and its effort to return to a condition of equilibrium is said to result, in the course of time, in a fracture or split. In an appendix the paper gives a specification which embodies the requirements of mechanical manipulation during manufacture. This specification has been in use by certain industrial concerns and its enforcement is claimed to have resulted in the overcoming of the difficulty above cited. Cast Iron. A paper on "The Physical Properties of Foundry Iron" by J. E. Johnson (Met. Chem. Engng., xv) outlines very comprehensively and in minute detail the effects on physical characteristics of the various chemical elements common to cast iron. Corrosion. A new apparatus for the conducting of corrosion tests is described in a paper by F. N. Speller (Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mats., xvi, 1916). The author has developed a service test for determining the relative resistance to one kind of corrosion of iron and steel products, this to take the place of the "acid test" which has in many instances been found to give misleading results. The conditions of the test practically duplicate those common to water- and steam-pipe service. The elements effecting corrosion in the service are as cited: (1) The amount of free oxygen in solution in water. (2) The volume of flow. (3) Temperature. Corrosion increases directly as the temperature of the circulating water up to 160 to 180° F., in which zone the maximum effects are noted. The depth of pitting due to corrosion in wrought-iron and steel pipe used in high-duty hot-water systems is sometimes as great as 0.1 in. after two years' service. The apparatus can be operated to duplicate this depth in one-eighth of that time. Steel. "Influence of Thickening on Tensile Tests," an article by G. W. Waterhouse (Iron Age, April 13, 1916), reports a series of tests made upon specimens of basic open-hearth and acid Bessemer steel, the variation in thickness of specimens being from 0.307 in. to slightly over one inch. The results for open-hearth steel exhibit a decrease in resistance with increase in thickness up to about 0.6 in. Subsequently the resistance is practically constant. The elastic limit, however, continues to drop in value beyond a 0.6 in. thickness. These results confirm earlier experimental evidence. The Bessemer steels give results quite at variance with what has commonly been assumed as true. The decrease in ultimate resistance with increased thickness is almost negligible. The elastic limit shows but a slight variation. The author believes that the residual phosphorus of Bessemer steel has a greater influence on the tensile properties of the steel than the variation in gauge. Sulphur in Basic Steel.-A paper by J. S. Unger (Trans. Soc. Auto. Engrs., 1916) reports a number of experiments made upon Bessemer steel in which the sulphur content was increased in more or less uniform increments from 0.032 to 0.230 per cent. These steels were rolled into various shapes, such as sheet, wire, rivets, channels, rails, etc., which were tested for strength and elasticity, hot and cold working, machining, case hardening, and other properties. The author believes, and his tests seem to confirm, that a great deal of unjust prejudice exists against sulphur in steel, that steel with a sulphur content as high as 0.1 per cent. is not necessarily bad. A number of tables giving the results of physical tests are embodied in the paper. Influence of Some Elements on the Mechanical Properties of Steel.-A paper by J. E. Snead (Iron and Steel Inst., Sept. 22, 1916) presents the results of investigations made to determine more especially the influence of phosphorus and sulphur on the mechanical properties of steel. The following table gives some of the results obtained: of steel. Dr. Snead stated that he did not defend the use of high-phosphorus or sulphur steels. He believes that these elements should ordinarily be reduced to the lowest possible limits, but that for certain purposes phosphorus and sulphur are useful. Certain of these steels are being sold in England. Silicon Alloy Steels.-In investigations reported by Henry B. Hibbard, U. S. Bureau of Mines, the author finds silicon steel containing 2 per cent. of carbon may be rolled if the silicon content is less than 7 per cent.; with 0.09 per cent carbon, can be rolled with silicon less than 5 per cent. The presence of silicon is stated to elevate the elastic limit to a slight degree in structural steels. It also lowers the coefficient of expan sion of steel, as nickel does. Silicon alloy steels are used largely for automobile springs and have been found to give excellent service. Other Researches.-Other important researches published during the year are the following: ARNOLD, J. O. "Relations Between Brinell and Scleroscopic Hardness and Cutting Efficiency of Tool Steel." (Iron and Steel. Inst., May, 1916.) BRISTEL, F. J.-"The Changes in Physical Properties of Aluminium with Mechanical Work." (Faraday Society, 1916.) DEFORREST. A. B. "Some Experiments on the Plastic Elongation of Iron." (Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mats, xvi, 1916.) HOWE, HENRY M., and LEVY, ARTHUR G. -"Notes on the Hardening and Temper of Eutectoid Carbon Steels and the Shore Test." (Ibid.) MOORE, HENRY F., and SEELY, F. B."The Relation Between Yield Point and Proportional Limit in Various Grades of Steel." (Ibid.) ROWDON, HENRY S. "Microstructural Changes Accompanying the Annealing of Cast Bronze." (U. S. Bur. of Standard Technological Paper 60, 1916.) WHITE, A. E., and WOOD, H. F.-"Recrystallization as a Factor in the Failure of Boiler Tubes." (Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mats., xvi, 1916.) YOUNG, C. D.-"Heat Treatment of Car bon Steel Locomotive Axles: Water versus Oil Quenching." (Ibid.) XXII. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY MATHEMATICS E. B. WILSON The National Societies.-It was mentioned in the YEAR BOOK for 1915 (p. 583) that there was under way the organisation of a new national association to specialize in the field of collegiate mathematics. At the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Columbus, Dec. 30-31, 1915, the new society was formally brought into existence under the name, Mathematical Association of America, and under these officers: Prof. E. R. Hedrick (Missouri), president; Profs. E. V. Huntington (Harvard) and G. A. Miller (Illinois), vice-presidents; and Prof. W. D. Cairns (Oberlin), secretary-treasurer. The Association took over the American Mathematical Monthly as its official journal. The reception accorded the Association at the hands of the mathematical teaching public in American colleges was remarkably favorable, for in less than a year the membership in the Association has risen to over 1,100, some 50 per cent. greater than that which the American Mathematical Society (primarily a society for research) has attained in its 25 years of existence. (Kansas) and F. S. Woods (Mass. Inst. Technology). By a mathematical recreation is meant a problem proposed and discussed primarily as an intellectual curiosity. Such problems are the construction of magic squares, the knight's path on the chessboard (it being required that starting from some square the knight shall light upon each of the 64 squares once and only once and return to the original square on the 64th move), and the arithmetical triangle of Pascal. Professor Smith pointed out that many of the standard problems in elementary algebra today originated, at least in type, far back in the days when algebra was as yet but poorly developed, and were in those days mathematical recreations. The American Mathematical Society held its summer meeting at Harvard, Sept. 4-8. In addition to a large programme of scientific papers by various authors, there was a colloquium consisting of two series of lectures, one by Prof. O. Veblen (Princeton) on "Analysis Situs," the other by Prof. G. C. Evans (Rice) on "Theory and Application of Functionals," two of the most advanced and The Association had its first sum- important subjects of research in mer meeting on Sept. 1-2 at the Mas- present-day mathematics. The meetsachusetts Institute of Technology, ing marked the 25th year of the SoCambridge, at which over one hun-ciety; an especial effort had been dred persons were in attendance. The made to secure a large attendance in programme consisted of the following recognition of this anniversary, and addresses: "The Teaching of Elemen- the attendance both at the general tary Dynamics," by Profs. E. W. Hunt-sessions and at the colloquium was ington (Harvard) and L. M. Hoskins highly satisfactory. (Stanford); "The History of Mathematical Recreations" by Prof. D. E. Smith (Columbia); "Combined Courses in Mathematics for Freshmen," by Profs. J. N. Van der Vries Scandinavian Mathematics.-It had been planned to hold at Stockholm, in September, the sixth of the international quadrennial congresses of mathematicians. As European con ditions precluded an international tions are not sufficiently precise to congress, the Scandinavian mathema- furnish proof or disproof of the work. ticians met by themselves. As a piece of mathematical analysis Dr. G. Mittag-Leffler (Stockholm), and of physical hypothesis or speculawho for a long time has been the tion, however, it must rank high unleader among Scandinavian mathema-til it passes from the speculative into ticians, announced upon his 70th the proved or disproved. (See also birthday, March 16, 1916, that he and XXIV, Physics.) his wife had made a joint will leaving their large fortune to found the Mittag-Leffler Mathematical Institute. The Institute is to preserve and increase the large mathematical library of the founder; it is to grant scholarships for study both at home and abroad to young persons of both sexes who belong to the four Scandinavian countries and who have shown real aptitude for research and discovery in pure mathematics; and it is to give prizes without distinction of nationality to persons who have made the most important discoveries in pure mathematics. The emphasis upon pure, as distinguished from applied, mathematics is intentional; for the founder believes that pure mathematics is very important to the advance of a nation, and that, apart from specialists, few persons understand this importance. This foundation marks a great epoch not only for Scandinavian mathematics, but for pure mathematics the world over. Personal Notes.-Prof. G. A. Bliss (Chicago) was elected in 1916 to the National Academy of Sciences. Dr. George Sarton, of Ghent, Belgium, has been lecturing at Harvard on the "Origin and Development of Greek Science" and on "Principles of Mathematics Historically Considered." Hon. Bertrand Russell (Cambridge, Eng.), the philosopher, known for his work on the foundations of mathematics, was to have lectured at Harvard but was detained at home. It is announced that for the year 1914-15, 23 doctorates were awarded by our universities to students of mathematics, of which nine were granted by Chicago. The following deaths should be noted: J. W. R. Dedekind (Braunschweig), Feb. 12, aged 83, known for his work on the theory of numbers; Webster Wells (Mass. Inst. Technology), May 23, aged 65, an author of many widely used elementary texts; E. Mach (Vienna), Feb. 22, aged Gravitation. For some years A. 78, known in this country particuEinstein and others have been engaged larly by his Science of Mechanics, in building up a theory of gravita- etc. (Open Court); K. Schwarzschild tion (A. Y. B., 1913, p. 614) with (Potsdam), May 11, aged 42, astronthe aim of uniting gravitational and omer, physicist, and mathematician; electromagnetic phenomena into an Don José Echegaray (Madrid), Sept. organic whole, as Maxwell united elec- 15, aged 83, mathematical physicist, tric, magnetic and optical phenomena. poet, and dramatist; W. C. Esty (AmIt is almost impossible to get satis- herst), July 27, aged 78, an early factory information from Germany, student of quaternions; Emory Mcbut it appears that Prof. D. Hilbert Clintock, July 10, aged 76, first presi(Göttingen) has just written a mem- dent of the American Mathematical oir on the foundations of physics in Society, actuary and vice-president of which he comes to the conclusion that the Mutual Life Insurance Co.; F. electromagnetic phenomena may be W. Frankland, July 24, aged 61, New regarded as a consequence of universal Zealand mathematician, actuary, and gravitation, when the latter is pre- philosopher; Josiah Royce (Harvard), sented in the generalized manner of Sept. 14, aged 60, philosopher and Einstein. To a certain extent the mathematician; E. H. Harper (Cork), work is a unification of that of A. a pioneer in the mathematics of aviaEinstein and of G. Mie. The mathe- tion (A. Y. B., 1915, p. 583), killed matics is too complicated for expla- in aerial service in France; L. L. Conation here. Moreover, as yet there nant (Worcester Tech.), Oct. 11, aged appears to be little or no physical 59; P. Duhem (Bordeaux), mathebasis for the theory; our physical ex-matical physicist and historian, in periments and astronomical observa- September, aged 67. |