relation of the woman question, education, and politics to eugenics are in turn passed in review. In general, one finds the authors' position logical because biological.

There are a few defects in the book. One could wish that there were more bibliographical citations; one may doubt if the intermingling of races per se involves danger; one may regret that the laws of heredity are not more fully set forth, but after all one finishes the book with a feeling that the authors have made a forceful presentation of the importance of heredity for society.

COLD SPRING HARBOR, N.Y.

CHARLES B. DAVENPORT

Socialism and Individualism. Fabian Socialist Series, No. 3. Reprinted from Fabian Tracts, revised. BY SIDNEY WEBB and OTHERS. New York: John Lane Co., 1911. Pp. 102. This small volume is a collection of four short essays issued by the Fabian Society of England as propagandist material. The titles and authors are: "The Difficulties of Individualism," by Sidney Webb; "The Impossibilities of Anarchism," by Bernard Shaw; "The Moral Aspects of Socialism," by Sidney Ball; "Public Service versus Private Expenditure," by Sir Oliver Lodge.

In "The Difficulties of Individualism" Sidney Webb makes use of the usual socialist arguments in favor of collective ownership of capital. Socialism is defined as "not a faith in an artificial utopia but a rapidly spreading conviction. that social health and consequestly human happiness is something apart from and above the separate interests of individuals."

"The main difficulties of the existing social order are those immediately connected with the administration of industry and the distribution of wealth." Specifically these difficulties are: inequality of income, with consequent degradation of character and loss of real freedom by the wage-earning class. The approach to socialism is to be by opportunist methods. The economic argument of the essay rests on the theory that wages are determined by the worker upon marginal land and with marginal capital; and that consequently all advantage of land above the marginal, and of capital employed at better than marginal conditions, goes to the capitalist owner under the present order. Economists will not all agree with this theory of wages.

"The Impossibilities of Anarchism" is reprinted from a paper read in 1891 before the Fabian Society and since circulated as a socialist

tract. On the assumption that many middle-class persons are today using anarchist arguments in behalf of the present social order, Mr. Shaw proceeds to meet the practical tenets of anarchism by a reductio ad adsurdum argument. His goal is not the demolition of anarchistic tenets but the showing that compulsory collectivism is the only possible road to freedom and democracy.

In "The Moral Aspects of Socialism" Sidney Ball defends socialism against the charge of placing undue emphasis on machinery. The ground taken is that socialism is "an endeavor to readjust the machinery of industry in such a way that it can at once depend upon and issue in a higher kind of character and social type." It does this by putting competition on a higher plane than individualism, and thereby results in the social selection of a higher type of character. This higher standard of life is the goal of socialism.

In the address upon "Public Service versus Private Expenditure," Sir Oliver Lodge presents in popular language the advantages to a community of corporate ownership of property and compares this with individual expenditure to the disadvantage of the latter. The development of a higher degree of public spirit is held as not the least result of this corporate ownership and expenditure.

There is little that is new in the volume and the argument is adapted to popular propaganda rather than to scientific purposes.

CECIL C. NORTH

DE PAUW UNIVERSITY

RECENT LITERATURE

NOTES AND ABSTRACTS

Die Entwickelungsrichtungen der deutschen Volkswirtschaft nach den Ergebnissen der neuesten Deutschen Statistik.-The basis of German economic development has been the increase in the population. The task of providing for the growing population has involved the industrializing of Germany and the development of a foreign commerce. The proportion of the population of working age and in industrial occupations has increased. Increasing numbers have been drawn together into cities. Big business has developed. The laboring classes have increased much more rapidly than the population as a whole, while the absolute number of persons economically independent has increased very little, and has actually decreased in proportion to the entire population. Finally the number of women in gainful occupations has greatly increased. Dr. M. Mendelson, Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft, Nos. 3-11, 1912. S. A. Q.

Zur Geschichte der Anfänge des englischen Trade Unionismus.-Three struggles are to be distinguished in the early part of the nineteenth century. The small home producers were fighting the factories, sometimes giving vent to their passions in the destruction of property. The gilds were struggling against the large contractors. The factory workers were carrying on the real class conflict between laborers and capitalists. The first two groups were entrepreneurs, the third alone was the proletariat. The small producers and gilds sought a solution of their difficulties in co-operative production. The factory_workers demanded improvement of their situation by legislation.-L. Pumpiansky, Ergänzungshefte zur Neuen Zeit, August 9, 1912. S. A. Q.

Essai de critique sociologique du Darwinisme.-Neo-Darwinians have injected into the insufficiently analysed terms "fittest" and "best adapted" an evaluational significance from which they deduct the fatalistic doctrine of a necessary straight-line human perfectibility. But facts show that progress toward higher types is only one of the possible consequences of selection, which is in itself a blind force. Underlying Darwin's theory of natural selection was the notion of reproduction suggested by Malthus. But again, facts show that reproduction is simply a phenomenon of adaptation. Were the above doctrines valid, sociology would be useless. Its value is based on the fact that there are other factors in adaptation which can be controlled.-S. Jankélévitch, Revue philosophique, May, 1912. S. A. Q.

Sur le charactère international de l'économie politique contemporaine.— Not a single civilised country produces all that it consumes, nor consumes all that it produces. Not only are all interdependent for finished products, but also for halfproducts and for raw material. Capital and labor, through international credit and migration, are also important for the integration of all national economies into a world economy. This international division of labor and integration have already gone so far that changes in the economic condition of every country affect every other country.-L. Brentano, La vie internationale, No. 5, 1912. S. A. Q.

Krupp'sche Arbeiter-Familien. Entwicklung und Entwicklungfaktoren von drei Generationen Deutscher Arbeiter.—The following conclusions are drawn from an intensive study of 682 families in the Krupp steel mills in Essen; monograph studies have been made of 196 of these families for three generations. The descendants of business men and under officials have in the third generation become officials in the mills; the descendants of iron-workers have become in the third generation masters; the descendants of original peasants have made the least progress. It is possible for

manual laborers to advance, retrograde, or remain in the same relative position. Most of those who had failed to advance were physically weak. The most important factors in advancement were found to be personal characteristics, the success of the enterprise, steadiness of work relations, character of family. Length of service, age of entering the occupation, economic condition of the family were not found to be definitely correlated with advancement of workers. Richard Ehrenberg and Hugo Racine, Archiv für exakte Wirtschaftsforschung, Sechstes Ergänzungsheft, 1912, pp. I-398. S. A. Q.

Hard Work, Long Hours, and Human Limitation.-The age at which work shall begin has by degrees been raised to 16 and an effort is being made to raise it still higher. Hours of work have been shortened, but, at the same time, there has been a corresponding increase in the intensity and strain of the work. Arduous work likely to entail future physical disabilities upon young persons should not be allowed and the age at which young persons undertake hard work should be raised. Where twelvehour shifts have been reduced to eight hours, all employers are agreed that the men have become more temperate, more regular in their attendance, with fewer days of sickness, and have had more opportunities of qualifying themselves for citizenship. In some cases there has been a reduction in the number of accidents. It would be well if means could be devised whereby Sunday's rest could be obtained for all workmen.-Sir Thomas Oliver, Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute, November, 1912. R. F. C.

Medical Inspection of Schools. This is the latest move in the direction of co-operation between health boards and educational authorities. The primary object is the prevention of contagious diseases. But the field has widened to include also a study of all the children from the point of view of health and physical perfection. Though concerning himself first with communicable diseases, the medical inspector will also search out remediable defects. This work should be supplemented by the services of oculists, aurists, and dentists. The inspector will note the irremediable physical and mental defects and will know how the child can be made most fully selfsupporting. He will conserve the health of the children whom he finds well, by attention to all the items that influence their mental and physical life. The school nurse is a real aid, both in the school and in the home, and as a social worker.-Robert W. Hastings, American Journal of Public Health, December, 1912. R. F. C.

The Problem of Drunkenness.-The present system of caring for cases of drunkenness is inefficient. Punitive measures are futile. State control of treatment is desirable. Two facts must be kept in mind: (1) A comparatively small percentage of users of alcohol are confirmed drunkards or inebriates; (2) the appropriate care of the alcoholic implies both curative treatment and custodial care-the latter for the recidivist. The study of inebriety begins with the inebriate and requires individualization in treatment. Inebriety is an expression of nervous weakness and should be treated as a disease. There is no known drug which can permanently eradicate the desire for drink. Experience favors the educational system, relying largely for treatment upon the effects of pure air, good food, abstinence from alcohol and drugs, regular hours and out-of-door, skilled labor. It seeks to develop self-control in the patient and secure his co-operation in his own recovery. Medical after-care treatment is highly desirable. Colonization offers peculiar advantages.-Irwin H. Neff, Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, December 26, 1912. R. F. C.

The New Science of Geography.-Geography like every other science includes three phases or stages. (1) The empirical stage which is concerned merely with the gathering of facts. (2) The systematic stage in which these facts are classified. (3) The explanatory stage which is devoted to the determination of laws. The geographers' work has been done scientifically and is of great value but it still belongs to the empirical stage of the science. The majority have failed to apprehend that a mere collection of facts is not science. Only a handful have given their lives to the work of systematic classification. Because the facts in themselves are so entertaining they have failed to realize the necessity of co-ordinating them. Still fewer have devoted themselves to the final stage. Because of the vast number of highly interesting

phenomena they have not given enough energy to the patient sifting in order to discover laws. But the laws, although intricate and as yet only beginning to be known, are distinct and clear. This explanatory phase demands a close and careful reasoning which is in the highest degree disciplinary. Thus as a New Science which has comprehended all the phases, Geography stands between the science of geology, which deals with the past and the interior of the earth, and the great group of sciences, biology, ethnology, economics and history, which deal with life as it now exists.Ellisworth Huntington, Yale Review, October, 1912. J. H. K.

Some Laws of Racial and Intellectual Development.-There has always been a tendency to confuse the phenomena of intellectual development with those of racial development. One explanation for the confusion and the contradictory theories of sociologists and anthropologists is found in the fact of the perpetual migration which has been going on ever since man evolved from the prehuman stage. Migration is one of the methods of survival for as soon as a species becomes adjusted to its environment, it produces more individuals than can survive. The most fit remain at home. The migration results in extermination, change of type in the new environment or survival unchanged if the new environment is like the old. In early times when migration was slow and culture was primitive there was remarkable uniformity of type in a restricted area. Ability to migrate advanced with culture. In modern times when every nation is composed of many types and races, society is so organized that a few exceptionally able men uphold and advance its civilization and at the same time preserve and control the lower types of that vast majority which have never had an original idea in their lives. At the present time almost every advance in culture is the conception of some man in the northwestern corner of Europe, or one whose ancestors came from that place more or less recently.-Charles E. Woodruff, Journal of Racial Development, October, 1912.

J. H. K.

Minimum-Wage Laws.-Minimum-wage laws are no longer a subject of merely academic discussion. Massachusetts has a permanent commission with the initial duty "to inquire into the wages paid female employees in any occupation in the commonwealth." If it is discovered that the wages paid in a given occupation are inadequate, it becomes the duty of the commission to establish a wage board for this occupation. This board is to endeavor to determine a suitable wage rate. There is nothing permanent or final in the conclusion since upon petition of either employer or employees the entire action must be reviewed or even a new wage board established. Ohio has given constitutional sanction to the principle. The amendment applies to men as well as women. It expressly connects the establishment of a minimum-wage with concepts of health and working hours. Wisconsin and Minnesota considered bills in 1910 which will be reintroduced in 1913. Critics object that prices must rise with wages and that the worker will gain nothing. Evidence, however, goes to show that improved standards of hours, wages, and conditions tend not to increase retail prices of the product but to enhance the efficiency of the management.-Florence Kelly, Journal of Political Economy, December, 1912. J. H. K.

The American System of Industry. The progress and development of the American republic has been proportional to the development of machine power in industry. The American system of industry today is segregated into twenty or more crafts or commercial states. The Federal Congress has not as yet provided any legality for these now monopolistic entities. They are extra legal and are termed unlawful. Their operations are wrongly considered criminal performances. This system of business has no representatives in the Federal Congress. The representatives of the political states cannot properly interpret and legislate for these commercial states and for the rightful production and distribution of wealth. The American people should, therefore, recognize these great craft factors of business, remove their anti-trust limitations, incorporate them under government control and admit their representatives into congress. Here they would be able to express and to maintain their rights co-ordinate with representatives of the political states. The creation of such commercial states is possible under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution.-C. A. Bowsher, Moody Magazine, August and December, 1912.

J. H. K.