Abnormal Loading on Buildings and Progressive Collapse. An Annotated Bibliography Edgar V. Leyendecker, John E. Breen,* Norman F. Somes, This bibliography on the subjects of abnormal loading and progressive collapse is an anno- References pertaining to characteristics, frequencies, incidents, tests, design procedures, and Key words: Abnormal loading; alternate path; annotated bibliography; bibliography; building 1. Introduction There has been growing international concern that buildings, particularly multistory buildings, may be subjected to loading conditions not normally considered in design, i.e., abnormal loadings. This concern was intensified with the Ronan Point apartment collapse in London, England, in 1968. In this 22-story building of precast concrete panel construction, collapse was triggered by a gas explosion in the kitchen of an apartment on the 18th floor. The explosion blew out an exterior wall panel; the loss of support provided by the panel resulted in a chain reaction of collapse to the roof. The collapse also progressed almost to the ground as debris from above fell on successive floors below (see figure 1). This type of chain reaction or propagation of failure following damage to a relatively small portion of a structure has been termed "progressive collapse." A Commission of Inquiry Report [84] and subsequent studies of the Ronan Point collapse revealed a number of deficiencies in existing codes and standards, particularly as they applied to multistory construction. In the United Kingdom interim criteria for the appraisal and strengthening of existing buildings. and the design of new structures were quickly implemented. Several other countries in Europe introduced additional design criteria to deal explicitly with the risks exposed by the incident. • Professor of Civil Engineering. The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas. ** Structural Engineer, Bechtel Corporation, San Francisco, California. 2 This bibliography on the subjects of abnormal loading and progressive collapse is an annotated listing of articles that have appeared in the technical literature from 1948 through 1973. The references listed in this bibliography have been selected as most representative of the historical background and best representing the origin and present state-of-the-art of current practice without undue repetition of data. Since the bibliography is intended as a reference document on the subject of progressive collapse, it was made as complete as possible. The references cover a broad range of structures, such as apartment buildings and bridges, both during and after construction. Thus, the reader with a narrow interest, such as completed apartment buildings, will find the literature of direct interest, while at the same time having available a comprehensive listing of references covering the broad category of progressive collapse. Because the heightened interest in the subjects of abnormal loadings and progressive collapse both stemmed from the Ronan Point incident, it was impractical to attempt to divide the bibliography into exclusive subsections. Instead, the entries have been arranged chronologically by year and alphabetically within years. For the convenience of the user, both subject and author indexes have been included. The numbers following the subjects or names in the index refer to the individual references in the bibliography. Annotations have been included throughout. Some have been obtained from such sources as the Engineering Index, Building Science Abstracts, Applied Mechanics Reviews, and the Geodex Structural Index. Many were prepared by the project staff. 1 Figures in brackets designate literature references listed in the bibliography. 2 Research sponsored by the Office of Policy Develoment and Research, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, D. C. 20410. Examination of the subject index indicates the farreaching scope of the bibliography. References pertaining to characteristics, frequencies, incidents, tests, design procedures, and regulations or many types of abnormal loadings are included. Among these are various types of accidental impacts, construction loads, explosions, faulty practices, and extreme atmospheric loads. References are multiple listed as appropriate with particular collapse examples identified by geographical location as well as by type of failure. In addition to the general reference material, a careful search was made of the ten most recent years of Engineering News-Record to identify possible progressive collapse examples from structural failures reported by that publication. In keeping with the general nature of this bibliography, failure of different types of structures is included. These items list many examples of both vertical and horizontal progressive collapse which have occurred in recent years other than the wellknown Ronan Point incident. Also included are a number of examples involving major abnormal loadings such as large scale gas explosions and formwork fail. ures where progressive collapse might be expected but did not occur, since this helps focus on the resistance of many conventionally designed and constructed buildings. For all specific failure examples, an at tempt was made to classify the failure mode and to identify possible progressive collapses in the subject index under the heading Failure Modes, Progressive. Heavy emphasis was placed on referencing applicable building codes and regulations pertaining to the subjects of progressive collapse and abnormal loadings. Subject index headings such as Building Code and Recommendations lead to major regulations issued to cope with this subject area. Numerous citations. are included under the headings Alternate Path and Specific Resistance, which have come to represent the most general way of codifying requirements for ensuring safety against progressive collapse. This bibliography contains numerous references to contemporary professional opinion as expressed in editorials and discussions of the subject and, particularly, on the various regulations proposed. A large number of proposed analysis and design procedures, as well as appplicable test results, are referenced. The general subject of risk analysis with emphasis on applications to multistory buildings is included. 2. Chronological Bibliography, 1948 1. Baker, J. F., Williams, E. L., and Lax, D., The Design of Framed Buildings Against High Explosive Bombs, The Civil Engineer in War, London, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 3, 1948, pp. 80-112. The experience of engineers in England dur ing World War II is documented. It was con. cluded that one of the outstanding facts to come out of the war was the high resistance of framed buildings to the effects of high explosives. 1949 2. Thompson, N. F., and Cousins, E. W., Explosion Tests on Glass Windows. Effect on Glass Breakage of Varying the Rate of Pressure Application, Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 32, No. 10, 1949, pp. 313-315. Tests were made to determine the effectiveness of glass windows in preventing building damage from internal explosions involving combustible dusts or vapors. It was found that the effective strength of glass panes increases in an approximately linear ratio with increased rate of pressure application. It was concluded that window glass is of dubious value for explosion venting purposes, except possibly for explosions of high pressure but of very short duration, such as those that might occur if small quantities of high explosive were placed relatively near the windows. 1950 3. Amirikian, A., Design of Protective Structures, NAVDOCKS P51, Department of the Navy, Bureau of Yards and Docks, Washington, D.C., August 1950. Protective design is a common problem for military installations as well as for civil and industrial buildings. This paper presents certain data and design procedures in two parts. The first part includes declassified experimental data and a procedure used by the Bureau of Yards and Docks of the Navy Department in designing structures to resist conventional weapons of World War II, such as bombs and projectiles. The second part develops a discussion of atomic bomb blast and a new concept of structural resistance. Based on this concept, an analysis is presented, together with a simplified procedure for the design of structures to resist atomic blast. 1951 4. Cousins, E. W., and Cotton, P. E., Design of Closed Vessels to Withstand Internal Explosions, Chemical Engineering, London, Vol. 58, No. 8. August 1951, pp. 133-137. Tests were conducted with rupture disks to provide data on the effect of disk strength and vent area on the maximum explosion pressure of an internal explosion in closed vessels. Variables included vessel size and strength; mixtures of hydrogen and air; and mixtures of propane and air. 5. Damage Control in Wartime, Studies in Business Policy No. 53, National Industrial Conference Board, September 1951. The results of an extensive study of how European companies protected personnel and minimized industrial damage during World War II are contained in this and the companion report, Protecting Personnel in Wartime. It is pointed out that damage can be controlled by action taken before, during and after attack. The principal hazards are blast, splinters, and fire, and of these, fire is the most destructive. Preparatory measures dealing with these factors are explained. Contains tables and graphs which simplify determination of blast pressures for various sizes and types of bomb explosions and distances from center of explosion. 1952 6. Nielsen, K., Loads on Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs and Their Deformations during Construction, Proceedings N:R 15, Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Institute at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1952. This report summarizes analytical and experimental studies of the magnitude of construction loads on reinforced concrete slabs in multistory apartment buildings. The study indicates that in typical cases measured loads up to 200 percent of slab dead load were observed while calculations indicate possible loads up to 250 percent of slab dead weight. The influence of rate construction, method of slab support, rigidity of formwork and moisture content of form lumber were studied. 7. Windowless Structures, A Study in Blast-Resistant Design, TM-5-4, Federal Civil Defense Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., June 1952. This manual is one of a series of publications dealing with protective construction and provides technical data for architects and engineers interested in designing buildings which will afford protection from atomic blasts. Methods and procedures for designing windowless structures based on the dynamic properties of loading are described. These principles are applicable to windowless portions of conventional buildings. Principles, methods, and formulas for determining the magnitude, duration, and distribution of atomic blasts loads on windowless structures are also presented. This publication is of interest to architects and engineers concerned with the design of conventional structures because many such structures can be made blast-resistant in whole or in part by the addition of relatively inexpensive design features. 1955 8. Brook, D. H., and Westwater, R., The Use of Ex plosives for Demolition, Proceedings, Institute of Civil Engineers, London, Vol. 4, No. 3, P. III, December 1955, pp. 862-899. The authors feel that the use of explosives in civil demolitions involves problems sufficiently different from military demolitions to justify this paper. After outlining types of commercial explosives and accessories most suitable for demolition work and dealing with the methods of initiating them, the paper points out that there are only three ways in which explosives can be used for demolitions, namely, as lay-on charges, as concussion charges, and as shot-hole charges. Each of these ways in which explosives can be used is considered and examples are given of actual operations. 9. Whitney, C. S., Anderson, B. G., and Cohen, E., Design of Blast Resistant Construction for Atomic Explosions, Journal of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 26. No. 7, March 1955, pp. 589-683. Methods and principles used in designing the first full scale blast resistant structures tested at Eniwetok are presented and the test results are cited in support of the procedures outlined. Economic and other practical considerations are discussed. Radiation hazards and methods of dealing with them are described. Appendices are included which give detailed procedures for computing the blast loading, for designing individual structural elements and single and multistory buildings in both the elastic and plastic range for this loading, for computing ultimate strength of structural elements and frames under rapid loading, and for dealing with some special problems. 1956 10. Granstrom, S. A., Loading Characteristics of Air Blasts from Detonating Charges, Transactions of the Royal Institute of Technology, Nr. 100, Stockholm, Sweden, 1956. The purpose of the report is to clarify the loading effects produced on structures by air blasts from detonating charges. Pressure-time curves are presented to show the effect of a 1 kg charge of TNT at selected distances. 11. Newmark, N. M., An Engineering Approach to Blast Resistant Design, Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 121, 1956, pp. 45-64. The problem of blast-resistant design is approached directly by means of reasonable sim Examination of the subject index indicates the farreaching scope of the bibliography. References pertaining to characteristics, frequencies, incidents, tests, design procedures, and regulations or many types of abnormal loadings are included. Among these are various types of accidental impacts, construction loads, explosions, faulty practices, and extreme atmospheric loads. References are multiple listed as appropriate with particular collapse examples identified by geographical location as well as by type of failure. In addition to the general reference material, a careful search was made of the ten most recent years of Engineering News-Record to identify possible progressive collapse examples from structural failures reported by that publication. In keeping with the general nature of this bibliography, failure of different types of structures is included. These items list many examples of both vertical and horizontal progressive collapse which have occurred in recent years other than the wellknown Ronan Point incident. Also included are a number of examples involving major abnormal loadings such as large scale gas explosions and formwork failures where progressive collapse might be expected but did not occur, since this helps focus on the resistance of many conventionally designed and constructed buildings. For all specific failure examples, an at tempt was made to classify the failure mode and to identify possible progressive collapses in the subject index under the heading Failure Modes, Progressive. Heavy emphasis was placed on referencing applicable building codes and regulations pertaining to the subjects of progressive collapse and abnormal loadings. Subject index headings such as Building Code and Recommendations lead to major regulations issued to cope with this subject area. Numerous citations are included under the headings Alternate Path and Specific Resistance, which have come to represent the most general way of codifying requirements for ensuring safety against progressive collapse. This bibliography contains numerous references to contemporary professional opinion as expressed in editorials and discussions of the subject and, particularly, on the various regulations proposed. A large number of proposed analysis and design procedures, as well as appplicable test results, are referenced. The general subject of risk analysis with emphasis on applications to multistory buildings is included. 2. Chronological Bibliography, 1948 through 1973 1948 1. Baker, J. F., Williams, E. L., and Lax, D., The Design of Framed Buildings Against High Explosive Bombs, The Civil Engineer in War, London, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 3, 1948, pp. 80-112. The experience of engineers in England during World War II is documented. It was concluded that one of the outstanding facts to come out of the war was the high resistance of framed buildings to the effects of high explosives. 1949 2. Thompson, N. F., and Cousins, E. W., Explosion Tests on Glass Windows. Effect on Glass Breakage of Varying the Rate of Pressure Application, Journal of the American Ceramic Society, Vol. 32, No. 10, 1949, pp. 313-315. Tests were made to determine the effectiveness of glass windows in preventing building damage from internal explosions involving combustible dusts or vapors. It was found that the effective strength of glass panes increases in an approximately linear ratio with increased rate of pressure application. It was concluded that window glass is of dubious value for explosion venting purposes, except possibly for explosions of high pressure but of very short duration, such as those that might occur if small quantities of high explosive were placed relatively near the windows. 1950 3. Amirikian, A., Design of Protective Structures, NAVDOCKS P51, Department of the Navy, Bureau of Yards and Docks, Washington, D.C., August 1950. Protective design is a common problem for military installations as well as for civil and industrial buildings. This paper presents certain data and design procedures in two parts. The first part includes declassified experimental data and a procedure used by the Bureau of Yards and Docks of the Navy Department in designing structures to resist conventional weapons of World War II, such as bombs and projectiles. The second part develops a discussion of atomic bomb blast and a new concept of structural resistance. Based on this concept, an analysis is presented, together with a simplified procedure for the design of structures to resist atomic blast. 1951 4. Cousins, E. W., and Cotton, P. E., Design of Closed Vessels to Withstand Internal Explosions, Chemical Engineering, London, Vol. 58, No. 8. August 1951, pp. 133-137. Tests were conducted with rupture disks to provide data on the effect of disk strength and vent area on the maximum explosion pressure of an internal explosion in closed vessels. Variables included vessel size and strength; mixtures of hydrogen and air; and mixtures of propane and air. |