Year 1927 1935 1940. 1945. 1950 1955 1960. 1965 Table 2. Population of Turkey and Its Rate of Change, 1927–65 Source: Adapted from United States Agency for International Development, Economic and Social Indicators, Turkey, 1967. prior to 1945 and its annual rate of increase was declining. However, between 1945 and 1965 the population increased by nearly 75 percent. The largest increases were registered in the 1950's when the annual increment to the population was nearly 3 percent. Although some of this growth could be attributed to the absorption of Turks from other countries, most of it was due to improvement in public health techniques and to a declining death rate. In addition substantial gains were made in reducing mortality among infants and young children. Since 1960 there has been a much-welcomed slowing down in the rate of population growth. The 2.5 percent annual addition for the 1960-65 period, while higher than the world average (approximately 1.9 percent), represents a significant decline from that of the previous decade. This decline has been explained by some analysts by the absence of over 200,000 Turkish workers employed in western Europe. Others cite economic pressures, increased urbanization, and official encouragement of family planning. The apparent decline in the rate of population growth for 1960-65 may be somewhat misleading, however. Many of the women who were entering the child-bearing age were born in the 1940-45 period. Because fewer children were born during those war years, the number of women of child-bearing age in 1960-65 was necessarily smaller than that of the previous 5-year intervals. POPULATION MOVEMENT During the 20th century, the country has witnessed large population transfers, a substantial outward movement of foreign minority groups, and growing internal mobility, especially among the male population. In recent decades the rural-urban shift has taken on new proportions, causing housing and water shortages, unemployment problems, and other difficulties. In the century preceding the ultimate overthrow of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey experienced an influx of refugees and immigrants. These were largely Moslems, particularly public officials and rich landowners who had been living in territories which had been emancipated from Turkish rule. This migratory movement began to take on new force in the early 20th century in response to the desire for ethnic uniformity which was making itself felt among the Turks. In an attempt to rid the country of its foreign elements, intermittent warfare developed, directed mainly at the Armenians and the Greeks. The Greek movement out of Turkey, which began around 1912, reached its highest point in the 1920's during the War of Independence. As part of the peace settlement after the Greek defeat in Turkey, a formal exchange of populations was agreed upon at Lausanne in 1923. The result of this exchange was that Turkey received about half a million Moslems from Greece for nearly 2 million Greeks who had been displaced since 1912. After the establishment of the Republic, repatriation of Turkic peoples and immigration of foreign minorities continued sporadically. Most of those who entered came from the Turkish-speaking minorities of the Balkan area. Between 1935 and 1940 about 170,000 people from Bulgaria and Rumania immigrated into Turkey. In 1953-54 20,000 from Yugoslavia entered the country. Like the Turks who were exchanged at Lausanne, these Balkan immigrants received full citizenship upon their arrival. Of those leaving Turkey since 1923, the largest group was the 35,000 Jews who left for Israel after World War II. The enactment of laws in 1932 and 1933 reserving most trades and professions to Turkish nationals caused numerous Englishmen, Yugoslavs, Italians, and other foreigners to leave Turkey. The most recent emigration was spurred by the Cyprus conflict. In 1963, during the height of this struggle, Turkish officials decided not to renew the residence permits of the Hellenic National Greeks residing in Turkey. Thus, a large number of these people were forced to emigrate. In addition to a rural-urban shift there are three major types of mobility within the country. There is, first, the migration of seasonal labor. The migrants are predominantly men, although some of the women are beginning to participate in the area surrounding their villages. Secondly, there are nomadic herdsmen who wander with their flocks. It is reported that some of these migrants have recently begun settling down in permanent communities, mainly along the edges of the Cukurova. The third migratory movement in Turkey is of more recent origin, resulting from a combination of factors-the rapid increase in population, improved urbanrural communication, the mechanization of agriculture, and the growing demand in the cities for industrial labor. There is the tendency for men, especially young men, to leave their homes for a few months each year and work in the secondary and primary cities. The shift of population from rural to urban areas was slow at first, but it has been accelerating since 1950. Between 1927 and 1950 while the population was increasing from 13.6 million to 20.9 million (an increase of over 50 percent), the proportion of urban dwellers remained relatively constant at between 24 and 25 percent. The census of 1955 indicated a significant change in the proportion of urban-rural dwellers taking place. In that year the percentage of inhabitants in urban centers was officially placed at 28.6 percent of the total. The influx of people into the cities from the countryside continued to show large increases, and by 1965 the proportion of city dwellers was estimated to be 34.4 percent (see table 3). The number of cities with a population of over 100,000 persons rose from 9 in 1960 to 14 in 1966. Large increases were registered in the six largest cities. Between 1950 and 1965 the population of Ankara more than tripled, and that of Adana more than doubled. The other major cities had similar but somewhat less growth. POPULATION PROBLEMS AND ATTITUDES The attitude of the government toward the population and its rate of increase has undergone a significant change since the founding of the Republic. Owing to the large manpower losses in the wars of 1911-22, the Turkish policy of the early 1920's was to encourage maximum increases in the rate of population growth. Distribution of information about contraception and use of contraceptives was prohibited by law. Abortion and sterilization were Table 3. Percent of the Turkish Population in Urban and Rural Areas, 1927-65 Source: Adapted from United States Agency for International Development, Economic and Social Indicators, Turkey, 1967. declared illegal, and financial incentives for large families were provided. However, a population growth rate of nearly 3 percent throughout the 1950's was cause for concern among those seeking to modernize the country. Hence, a reduction to 2.0 percent per year became a goal of the First 5-Year Development Plan, 1963–67. The new population policy sought to repeal the restraints of the 1920's and 1930's, and in 1965 a law legalizing the dissemination of birth control information and devices became effective. This family planning effort has been assisted by a $3.6 million United States foreign aid loan and by technical aid provided through the Population Council. The attitude of the people toward the use of contraceptives is mixed. It has been estimated that about 30 percent of those living in metropolitan areas practiced contraception in the mid1960's. Least headway has been made in the rural areas. The villager views a large family not only as an economic asset but also as a demonstration of his virility. Only about 6 percent of those in villages used birth control devices. During the mid-1960's the Ministry of Health was making a special effort to train medical students to educate and instruct the people in birth control methods. The goal of the government is to have 2 million families engaged in family planning by the end of 1972. This would represent about half of all married women in the reproductive age group. SIZE OF THE LABOR FORCE Because of the manner in which employment statistics are gathered, there is no accurate measure of the size of the labor force. According to the 1965 census, the labor force consisted of about 13.6 million persons or an estimated 43.3 percent of the total population. This figure represented about 74 percent of the population which was 15 years of age or older. However, it was drawn exclusively from the economically active population which is defined as those of 15 years of age or over, excepting persons in the Armed Forces. Thus, it excluded any child labor used. On the other hand, the unemployed and the underemployed as well as migrants and seasonal labor were included in the calculation. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LABOR FORCE Composition by Sex and Age In 1965 the labor force contained 8.4 million males-approximately 92 percent of all males aged 15 years or more. Females in the labor force numbered 5.2 million-an estimated 57 percent of the potentially economically active females. No social stigma is attached to the employed woman as long as she remains under the protection or chaperonage of her parents. While there are no official statistics on the number of children who participate in the labor force, they constitute an important part of the working population. Perhaps 25 percent of the children between 6 and 14 years of age are economically active. Most of them work with their parents in agriculture. However, they are also found in the cities, mainly in the service trades, working as messenger boys, domestic help, waiters, and so forth. Of the large number of females in the labor force, over 90 percent were categorized as unpaid family workers in 1965 (see table 4). These women participate in all types of manual farm labor, including plowing and burden-bearing. Generally, they are solely responsible for vegetable growing, poultry raising, milking livestock, processing milk and other dairy products, storing grain, and drying and preserving vegetables and fruit. Many of them sell their dairy and poultry products, fruits, and vegetables at the nearest market. The remaining 10 percent of the female labor force were either salaried employees, self-employed, or employers. Women holding such positions are found almost exclusively in the urban centers. The heavy concentration of female workers in agriculture occurs because social attitudes attach a prestigious position to the operation of machines. Hence, such work is generally restricted to the men. Moreover, women have traditionally done a large share of the farmwork in addition to their family duties. In 1965 approximately 45 percent of the male workers were either employers or self-employed, revealing the Turkish preference for economic independence. They are found chiefly in the countryside as farmers on their own small holdings and in the towns as shopkeepers, artisans, and other small entrepreneurs. Salaried employees constituted the second largest category of male workers. While only 6 percent of all females were among those on salary, nearly 33 percent of the men belonged to this Table 4. Structure of the Economically Active Population of Turkey, by Sex and Occupational Status, 1965 Source: Adapted from International Labour Organisation, 1967 Yearbook of International Labor Statistics, 1968. |