eligible to receive permanent grades. Opportunities for commissioned rank up to the grade of captain are available.

Before 1961 both high school and university graduates served as reserve officers. Under the provisions of a law enacted in 1961, however, only high school graduates perform their 2 years of military service as teachers in the primary schools of the provinces. Called reserve officer teachers, they are employed as teachers and paid by the Minister of National Education, but are assigned to military units for training during the summer (see ch. 9, Education). Individuals who are university graduates or the equivalent, on the other hand, serve as reserve officers and are initially sent for instruction to reserve officer schools. After completion of a 6-month course, reserve officers are appointed to a military unit with the rank of second lieutenant to fulfill the remainder of their compulsory service. Both reserve officers and reserve officer teachers, who ultimately become reserve officers, are released from active duty with the rank of lieutenant.

Women have also served in the defense forces. Until 1961 women were enrolled in military schools, and some attained officer status. A Ministry of National Defense statement in 1961, however, declared that "in view of the legal status and physical conditions of women officers and in consideration of Turkey's social structure," women would be assigned to auxiliary services only and exempted from military exercises, training, and guard duties. Women who had attained officer rank were given the opportunity to join the civil service.

LOGISTICS

Extensive American aid and advice, together with the planning facilities and arsenals of NATO to which Turkey has had access since 1952, have contributed to the development of a relatively modern and effective logistics system to support the armed forces. Normal logistic support of troops is provided by combat service support elements operating on a system adapted from the United States Army. The system is being improved as Turkey's transportation facilities expand. Notwithstanding the extensive highway construction program, the lack of adequate roads continues to be the primary problem in Turkey's logistical system. The absence of proper communications facilities in Eastern Anatolia was a matter of concern among CENTO members until a radio network was established in the region reaching to Iran.

Through the NATO infrastructure petroleum, oil, and lubricants (POL) pipelines have been constructed in both Greece and Turkey. It is estimated that by 1970, Turkey will have exploited

developing oil fields and refineries adequately to become selfsufficient in petroleum production (see ch. 2, Physical Environment; ch. 20, Industry).

Weapons range from side arms to howitzers and surface-to-air missiles. Turkey has a considerable potential for manufacturing small arms, and in late 1968 provided most of the rifles and pistols the army required. General Cemal Tural, formerly chief of the general staff, announced in April 1968 a 15-Year Plan for the arms industry and predicted that at the end of that period Turkey would be producing its own arms, including tanks, aircraft, and possibly nuclear weapons.

RANKS, UNIFORMS, INSIGNIA, AND DECORATIONS

The rank and grade pattern of the three services generally follows that of the United States, with personnel designated as officers and other ranks. Officers' insignia of grade in the army are displayed on khaki shoulder loops (epaulets) and noncommissioned officers' chevrons are worn on the upper right sleeve (see table 36). The insignia of officers are based on a system of five-pointed stars. General officers' insignia utilize a red and white crescent with a sword and baton superimposed. Noncommissioned officers' insignia are worn with the point down. Branch and service of army personnel are indicated by colored patches worn on the collars of officers' uniforms, and by colored collar patches and

cap insignia for enlisted men. Green is the color of infantry; black, with a tank emblem in yellow, of armor.

The uniforms of all three services are patterned after those of United States and NATO forces. The army uses a garrison-type uniform consisting of a blouse and trousers and British-type battle dress with trousers tucked into short leggings for the field. The navy has the traditional blue and the air force a lighter blue uniform. The rank and grade structure of the air force is virtually comparable to that of the army. The air force equivalent of field marshal is air marshal. Insignia are identical.

Decorations

The Turkish Republic has no decorations and orders similar to those of other countries. An Independence Medal was founded in 1924, however, as an award for outstanding service in the formation of the Republic. The color of the ribbon attached to the medal indicates why the award was bestowed. Different colored ribbons have been given with the medal to members of the Armed Forces, the national militia, and the Grand National Assembly for exceptional service at the front or behind the lines during the War of Independence. Turkey also has a variety of orders founded under the Empire, which are now obsolete.

MILITARY JUSTICE

The system of military justice in Turkey is based on the Turkish Military Criminal Code and the Turkish Military Criminal Procedure Code enacted in 1930. Both codes were prepared following a survey of the German, Belgian, and French military justice systems. Since 1930, a number of revisions have been incorporated to meet the changing needs of the Turkish Armed Forces.

Military justice in Turkey is rendered through a system of military tribunals formed in the headquarters of regiments, divisions, and army corps or equivalent organizations, in the air force and navy and in the office of the chief of general staff. In time of war tribunals can also be established in the armies and in the Office of the Commander in Chief. Tribunals are composed of military judges and officers in numbers and rank that vary with the nature of the offense and the rank of the accused.

The Military Court of Cassation is the highest body in matters of military jurisdiction. The court reviews decisions of military tribunals, rules on claims for revision of judgments and on requests for transfers of cases, and secures unification of the decisions and case laws. The court also tries specific exceptional cases as a court of the first and last instance. The members and chief prosecutor of the court are appointed by the President from judges over 40 years of age who have served for at least 10 years

as military judges or prosecutors, and who have been nominated by a majority of a plenary session of the Military Court of Cassation. The president is elected by the court from among its members to a 4-year term.

Military tribunals are charged with the hearing of cases involving military offenses and crimes. Offenses committed by military personnel which do not involve a military duty and are not otherwise military offenses, and which are not committed against military personnel, are tried by ordinary courts. The Turkish Military Criminal Code specifies the acts that constitute military crimes, which must be tried in a military court, and those that are military "misdemeanors," for which nonjudicial punishment may be imposed. Disciplinary infraction is the term given to those acts which violate discipline or military morale but which are not specifically cited in any article of the military laws.

Nonjudicial punishment for military misdemeanors and disciplinary infractions can be imposed by commanding officers of any separate military unit. The types of offenses for which punishment can be given and the types of punishment imposed vary according to the ranks of both the commanding officer and the offender. Even a corporal second class, however, if he is in command of a separate unit, can impose certain kinds of nonjudicial punishment upon his subordinates. The types of punishment include reprimand, forfeiture of pay, restriction, arrest in quarters, and confinement on bread and water. Unlike the United States system of military justice those who have committed acts punishable nonjudicially according to the Military Code have no right to trial in a military court. The offender may appeal to the next superior authority, however, who may refer the case for consideration by a military judge.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Section I. Social

RECOMMENDED SOURCES

Among the sources consulted in the preparation of this section, the following are recommended as additional reading on the basis of quality and general availability.

Alderson, A. D. The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty. London: Clarendon Press, 1956.

Allen, Henry E. The Turkish Transformation. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1965.

Berkes, Niyazi. The Development of Secularism in Turkey. Montreal: McGill University, 1964.

"Historical Background of Turkish Secularism." In Richard N. Frye (ed.), Islam and the West. The Hague: Mouton, 1956.

Birge, J. K. “Islam in Modern Turkey." In D. S. Franck (ed.), Islam in the Modern World. Washington: Middle East Institute, 1951.

Breese, Gerald. Urbanization in Newly Developing Countries. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966.

Edmonds, C. J. Kurds, Turks, and Arabs. London: Oxford University, 1957.

Erdentung, Nermin. A Study on the Social Structure of a Turkish Village. (Publication of the Faculty of Languages, History and Geography, the University of Ankara, No. 130) Ankara: University of Ankara, 1959.

Eren, Nuri. Turkey Today-and Tomorrow. New York: Praeger, 1963.

Foster, George. "Peasant Society and the Image of Limited Good," American Anthropologist, Vol. 67, 1965, 293–315.

Frey, Frederick W. The Turkish Political Elite. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965.

Gardner, Helen. Art through the Ages. (4th ed.) New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959.

Gibbs, Sir Hamilton A. R. Modern Trends in Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1950.