religious concerns. Istanbul is the hub, with Ankara and Izmir secondary journalistic centers. The influence of the press is limited by illiteracy and the problems of distribution to rural press. The urban poor and the villagers rely on oral rather than written communication.

Hürriyet (Freedom) with an estimated circulation of 535,000 is the largest newspaper in the Middle East (see table 13). Politically independent, it appeals to middle- and lower-income groups with news reporting of an often sensational character. The second largest newspaper, Milliyet (The Nation), edited by Abdi Ipekei, prides itself on political independence. The third largest newspaper, Tercüman (Interpreter), tends to favor the Justice Party and maintains a conservative orientation.

Cumhuriyet (Republic), the fourth largest with an estimated circulation of 148,000, is sometimes called the New York Times of Turkey. Established in 1923-24 by Yunus Nadi, an intimate friend of Atatürk, it is now edited by the founder's son Nadir and has first-class writers. Serious and politically responsible, it is politically neutral and gets more letters from its readers than any other Turkish newspaper. Fifth largest with an estimated circulation of 131,000, Akşam (Evening) has a leftist orientation and is often critical of the United States.

Other newspapers are associated with the political parties and do not have as large a circulation as the independent newspapers. Ulus (The People), founded in 1919, is the spokesman of the Republican People's Party. Yeni Adana (New Adana) is a forum for the left wing of the party. Dissident Republicans, who split off in 1967 to form the Güven Party, express their views in the intellectual Dünya and Yeni Tunin (see ch. 14, Political Dynamics). Associated with the Justice Party is the semiofficial Son Havadis and the conservative Adalet (Justice).

The press is predominantly Turkish, but Greek, Armenian, Jewish and French minorities in Istanbul publish a few papers of limited circulation and influence. Among these are Apoyermatini (Greek), Jamanak (Armenian), and Journal d'Orient (Jewish).

Turkish periodicals are varied, ranging from technical works to political satire. Akis (Reflection) and the biweekly Forum are among the important periodicals devoted to internal affairs. Akbaba is read for political satire. Yön, a Socialist weekly, was established after the 1960 coup.

The illustrated Hayat with an estimated circulation of 120,000 is the largest weekly in Turkey. In addition to other journals designed to entertain, there are serious journals which play an important role in the nation's cultural and intellectual expression (see ch. 10, Artistic and Intellectual Expression).

Table 18. Circulation and Description of Principal Daily Newspapers in

Source: Adapted from United States Information Agency, Circulation Figures and Descriptions of Turkish Publications, June 13, 1968.

Turkish newspapers offer considerable material other than general news. The lead editorial, local, and international news usually share the front page. On the whole domestic coverage is emphasized, with only slight attention given to international questions. Sensationalism is common, and more meaningful stories are often slighted. The inside pages carry political cartoons, sports, photographs, and feature stories. Sometimes a serialized novel or articles by specialists will appear. Political commentaries frequently feature attacks on party leaders rather than analysis of timely issues.

The provincial press has limited influence. It relies on the national news agency, the radio, or metropolitan dailies for news. Generally, there is little coverage of local events or needs. In the main consisting of a single sheet, written, edited and published by one man, the local newspaper has a precarious existence.

Official advertising supports many such newspapers. There are, moreover, additional incentives to the establishment of local newspapers. Editing and publishing a provincial paper is often the first step for an aspiring politician. The holder of a press card is also entitled to benefits, such as free or reduced rates for travel by land, sea, or air and a rebate on telephone charges.

Efforts are being made to increase the number of trained journalists. At present the quality of journalism is extremely uneven. An Institute of Journalism was established at the University of Istanbul in 1950, but few of its graduates have chosen journalism as a career. A second institute was opened in November 1966 at the University of Ankara to train students in the techniques of mass communication.

NEWS AGENCIES

Founded in 1920, Anadolu Ajansi (Anatolian Agency) is the leading domestic news service. Furnishing nearly all the news used by Radio Ankara and Radio Istanbul, it is supported by the government. Daily newspapers depend on it as primary source of news. It has working agreements with United Press International, Agence France Presse, Reuters, and reciprocity arrangements with a number of European national agencies.

Second is Turk Haberler Ajansi (Turkish News Agency) which began functioning in 1950. Like Anadolu Ajansi, it has representation throughout Turkey and major capitals abroad. Much less important, five to six smaller news agencies also make a contribution to Turkish journalism.

Such foreign newspapers and news agencies as The New York Times, the Associated Press, United Press International, and Agence France Presse have correspondents in Turkey.

RADIO AND TELEVISION

The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), founded in 1964 as an autonomous public agency, operates and oversees the radio and television services. The 15 transmitting stations are located as follows: 2 short, 1 long and 1 medium wave in Ankara; 2 medium wave stations in Istanbul; a long wave station in Erzerum; and a medium wave each in Izmir, Adana, Antalya, Kars, Van, Gaziantep, Diyarbakir, and Iskenderun. Only 2 of the stations, 1 in Ankara and 1 in Istanbul, broadcast to large audiences. In 1967, 43 percent of the population and 37 percent of the total area were covered by the existing transmitters under normal use and settled weather conditions. Consequently, people in the eastern and southeastern sections listen to foreign radio, especially stations originating in the Soviet Union and the Arab countries. The Second 5-Year Plan foresees nationwide reception of at least one national radio station. As part of the effort, the government is building transmitters in various parts of the country. Thus the radio as an instrument of public information is increasing in importance, enhancing the contribution it has already made as a link between urban and rural areas. Radio ownership has grown steadily. In 1958 there were 1.2 million registered sets; in 19601.3 million; in 1962-1.7 million; in 1966-2.6 million; and in late 1967-2.7 million. A yearly fee must be paid for a radio license; it is likely, however, that there are a number of unregistered receivers.

More than half of the radio broadcast time is devoted to music, and most of the remaining time to news, informational, and educational programming. Programs are broadcast abroad in Turkish (especially to Turkish migrant workers in Europe) and 15 other languages (Arabic, Bulgarian, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Persian, Polish, Pushtu, Rumanian, SerboCroat, Spanish, and Urdu). Police and educational institutions, such as the Technical University of Istanbul, also operate transmitters of minor importance.

In early 1968 regular television broadcasting began in Ankara, with expansion to Istanbul planned for later in the year. The development of television is part of the Second 5-Year Plan. The Technical University of Istanbul has operated an experimental television station since 1952 and now broadcasts 4 hours weekly. There is also an experimental station operated by the University of Ankara. Under favorable weather conditions, inhabitants of the western, southern, and eastern provinces can receive foreign telecasts. In Istanbul under such conditions programs are received from Rumania, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria. Estimates of the number of television sets vary from 6,000 to 10,000; many of these

have been brought in by returning Turkish migrant workers or by Yugoslav immigrants. For the immediate future television will be limited to urban areas.

FILMS

Films have become the chief means of popular entertainment in urban areas. According to 1965-66 estimates, there were 800-825 indoor movie theaters and an additional 1,300-1,350 outdoor ones which could be used in the summer months. Annual attendance was set at more than 100 million. Moviegoing is still largely an urban phenomenon. Mobile film units, operated by the Educational Film Center of the Ministry of Education, provide many villagers with their only opportunity to see a motion picture.

Films imported from the United States, France, Italy, Germany, and England are shown in Turkish theaters. The United States Information Service (USIS) has no mobile units, but does show films, chiefly in Turkish. USIS Turkey produces four to five documentations each year.

Melodramas are the most widely popular type of motion pictures. American and Western European films are about equally popular. From 140-200 features are made in Turkey each year, but a number of intellectuals deplore their quality. The number of film producers varies, but 15 are capable of turning out quality work. Most features are filmed without sound, and later dubbed in. Filmmakers are handicapped by a shortage of trained personnel and up-to-date equipment. Nonetheless, "Susuz Yaz" ("The Waterless Summer") won the 1964 International Film Festival in Berlin. The government is also seeking to attract foreign producers to use Turkey as a site for their films. There are two film censorship offices, one in Istanbul and one in Ankara.

BOOK PUBLISHING

Book publishing is limited by the size of the market and economic uncertainties. The factors which limit the influence of the national press, such as literacy and the problems of distribution, are even more critical for book publishing, a field in which the economic and political incentives given to journalism are lacking. From 1928 to the end of 1963 approximately 80,000 books and other printed materials in the Latin script (excluding periodicals) were published. From 1727 to 1928, a period in which Arabic script was used, approximately 30,000 books were printed. The numbers of books published annually between 1928 and 1950 fluctuated between 1,000 and 3,000. In 1960 there were 3,548 books published; in 1961 3,786; in 1962 3,440; and in 1963 5,426. Among the villagers, the most popular books are inexpensive pamphlets dealing with religious matters.