Over 20 different minerals are mined: bituminous coal, lignite, iron, chrome, copper, boracite, pyrites, manganese, asbestos, antimony, mercury, meershaum, sulfur, lead, zinc, emery, cobalt, magnesite, barite, fluorite, and asphalt. Wolfram, nickel, bauxite, feldspar, diatomite, talc, mica, fullers earth, kaolin, quartz and sodium sulfate are also mined.

The largest known coal field in the Middle East is located near Zonguldak, close to the Black Sea (see fig. 3). Reserves are estimated at 1 billion tons. About 6 million tons were mined in 1966. Lignite is found in many parts of the plateau region and Turkey has promoted the exploitation of lignite deposits for local use in power plants, central heating and private industry.

The earliest known iron mines in the world were worked in eastern Turkey, and the ore from this region is now shipped from the Divrigi mine, between Sivas and Erzurum, to the Karabük Iron and Steel Works south of Zonguldak, a distance of 600 miles. In 1966 over 1 million tons were mined.

Copper production has been increasing since 1939 when 3,000 metric tons were produced. During 1966 (the latest year for which information was available as of late 1968) production was 36,400 tons. Mines are located in the southeastern plateau region, and the major portion of the ore goes into export. The country is the largest chrome producer in the world and accounts for about onefifth of total world output. In 1966, production of chrome rose to a record figure of 502,000 tons. Reserves are estimated at 4 million tons. Mining activity is centered primarily around Bursa and Izmir. Production is seasonal because of weather conditions, and t:ansportation problems have been a handicap to further development of this mineral.

Exploration for resources has been a large-scale program, particularly for oil, which is found in insufficient amounts. Oil was first discovered in 1950 in the region east of Lake Van: exploration has since been extended to other areas. In 1966, daily crude oil production was 36,000 barrels (the latest year for which figures were available in late 1968) with reserves estimated at 1 billion barrels.

Vegetation and Soils

Both the natural vegetation and the cultivated crops are closely related to the climate. The constantly warm and moist coastal regions, especially on the north coast, are forested or cleared for cultivation. The dry interior, with its extreme temperatures, is a steppe of grass and low bushes, with patches of desert in the center and only isolated forests on the mountains; cultivation is limited to the inhabited valleys.

The coastal forests, which cover over 13 percent of the land, are mainly on the mountain slopes facing the seas. Because of the climate, mixed evergreen, coniferous and deciduous woodlands cover the slopes along the north and southeast. Evergreen oaks generally grow on the lower slopes up to 3,000 feet; and the higher levels, cedars, maple, juniper, fir and valonia oak are found. Deforestation has been a problem, especially in the south where there is a great deal of unlicensed cutting. Wood volume in the forests is about 750 million cubic meters. Turkey is now exploiting the harvesting of trees for both domestic use and export.

The high mountain peaks near the Sea of Mamara and Izmir in the west have a humid grassland near the snowline. The landscape below the snowline is covered by conifers and below this the slopes are covered with broadleaf trees which remain green year round. Broadleaf trees include the poplar, sycamore and mulberry. In the drier interior of the plateau, steppe vegetation is common. Typical vegetation is a combination of short grasses and bush, with lines of stunted willow trees along the watercourses. Along the west and southwest coastal regions, shrubs and evergreens flourish, particularly on the thinner soils. During the spring, flowers make a brilliant color display in this area. Walnut and poplar trees grow extensively in the damper areas with cactus plants flourishing in the more arid areas of the coast.

There are wide differences in the kinds of soils. In the narrow coastal regions of the west, north and south, the soil, known as terra rossa, is characteristic of Mediterranean areas. Formed from limestone, it is strongly weathered and leached. This type of soil is low in humus content, but enriched by iron and silica, it is fertile and suitable for vines and citrus crops. The high iron content gives the terra rossa a red color which becomes yellowish in areas of higher rainfall. Vast areas of the country are covered by gray-brown acidic soil, primarily in the mountain regions, which are stony and generally lack agricultural possibilities. Dense stands of deciduous and coniferous trees grow on these soils in the higher elevations.

The interior plateau regions, with semiarid climate, have desert soils which are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus. Where the grass areas have been removed, excessive erosion has stripped off the hillside soils. Rich alluvium with marl and clay and some swampy or saline patches is present in the few delta areas. Large areas of the east and some parts of the central plateau are covered with newly formed lava which are sterile of vegetation.

Wildlife

The countryside supports a variety of wildlife. Game birds including geese, duck, partridge, pigeon, quail and grouse are

found where water is available. In the lowlands, leopards are found in reedy delta areas and wildcats are found on the banks of streams. From time to time wild pigs roam in herds on the plateau and destroy crops. In the remote mountainous and drier plateau regions, bear, red and fallow deer, wolves, otter, hare, jackals, and gazelles can be found. Snakes, some venomous, and scorpions infest the arid regions of the plateau.

NATURAL REGIONS

The Aegean Coastlands-European Turkey

The western portion of the region consists mainly of rolling plateau country which is well suited for agriculture, receiving 25 inches of rainfall annually. The region contains the cities of Istanbul and Edirne and is densely populated. It is defined by a purely artificial frontier which has varied considerably over the last century (see fig. 4).

The Bosporus Strait, Marmara Sea and the Dardanelles Strait separate Asiatic and European Turkey. The Bosporus Strait is 16 miles in length and averages 1 mile in width, but narrows in places to less than 500 yards. Both banks, Asiatic and European, rise steeply from the water and form a succession of cliffs, coves, and landlocked bays. Most of the shores are densely wooded and are occupied by numerous small towns and villages.

The Dardanelles Strait is 25 miles long and increases in width towards the south. There are few settlements of any kind along the shores of the Dardanelles, the whole region being used for rough grazing.

The Aegean region in Asia has fertile soil and enjoys a typically Mediterranean climate with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The lowlands contain about half of the country's agricultural wealth in the broad, cultivated valleys, the most important of which are the Izmit Valley, the Bursa Plains, and the Plains of Troy. Figs, grapes, and other warm-climate crops thrive in the sunny, well-watered valleys and on the offshore islands. The area is densely populated, particularly around Bursa and Izmir, where extensive chrome deposits are mined. In these western regions some of the richest tungsten ore deposits in the world were discovered in explorations completed during the early 1950's.

The Black Sea Region

The Black Sea region has a steep and rocky coast and short rivers which cascade through gorges from the coastal ranges to the sea; these characteristics, combined with the lack of harbors. and of few river valleys leading inland, have confined settlement to a small number of districts in this region.