accepted poverty with equanimity, now demonstrate a desire for comfort and the prestige which attaches to the possession of consumer goods. The new consumption patterns have given an incentive to domestic producers and have been a factor in stimulating the rapid growth of the economy in recent years (see ch. 18, Character and Structure of the Economy). CHAPTER 9 Education has taken great strides in Turkey since the birth of the Republic in 1923. Kemal Atatürk was himself the product of a modernized military education, and he believed firmly that a reorganization of educational methods was one of the principal ways through which Turkey could become the modern nation he wanted it to be. The educational reforms begun by Atatürk have propelled Turkey further in 40 years than it moved in the 500 years of the Ottoman Empire. Through the Law of Unification of Instruction of 1924 education was taken out of the hands of the Moslem hierarchy and grasped firmly by secular authorities. Education and its improvement became one of the most important programs of the Turkish Government and was given priority wherever possible as an all-out attempt was made to educate the country. The result has been that Turkey's literate population has grown from 10 percent in 1924 to 52 percent in 1967. The main emphasis was necessarily on primary education, and since the founding of the Republic the number of primary schools and teachers has multiplied at least three times, while the number of students has multiplied seven times. For the Second 5-Year Plan (1968-72) the number of pupils now in primary schools (4.5 million) is close to the projected number (4.7 million). The very size of the problem has meant that it has so far been impossible for the young Republic to supply the whole country with educational necessities, and there is a great shortage of school buildings and teachers in rural areas. At present only 73 percent of primaryage students have schools to attend, and many of these are schools in which one teacher must handle several classes on different levels. The effort required to establish the large number of primary schools has meant that secondary and higher education have taken second place. All education was put under the highly centralized National Ministry of Education in 1924 and at the same time study groups were established to plan a new system for Turkey. In line with the entire cast of the Kemalist movement, the reformers looked to the West for inspiration and attempted to establish a system corresponding to the ones in France and the United States. There was a desire for quality education and the curriculum requirements were made rigorous to ensure it. However, the greater demands made upon the country in the attempt to establish such a system have not been totally satisfied, simply because the required number of high-caliber teachers and well-equipped educational plants could not be provided. The result is that the educational system as a whole fails to meet the needs of a rapidly developing society and that the educational barriers to the country's future development remain. Less than 20 percent of Turkish students can expect to reach first-cycle secondary education (junior high), some 8 percent of these reach second-cycle secondary education (lycée), and about 6 percent of these attain higher education. The educated elite is necessarily small, but still takes great interest in the efforts made toward the improvement of education. The bottlenecks found at each stage of education, particularly at the transition from primary to first-cycle secondary education, are recognized and the State Planning Organization established after the 1960 Revolution is making special efforts to correct them. EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY The early Ottoman sultans were determined to have their empire administered by the most talented men available. The devşirme system through which non-Moslem boys were recruited to become slaves of the Sultan was the source of the talent, and once recruited these boys were brought to the palace and trained for civil or military responsibilities. By the time of Mehmet II in the 15th century the Palace School (Enderun Mektebi) was systematized, and the normal route followed toward power and responsibility in the Ottoman Government. The system worked very well as long as advancement depended upon merit and ability, for it meant that power could not be acquired by an aristocracy other than one of ability. Some of the greatest Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire were reputedly from the most humble origins, having risen to the heights of power solely because they had proven their ability to be of service to the empire. The benefits of the Palace School were of necessity reserved for a very small number of people. The original restriction on similar recruitment of Moslems limited the store of potential talent that could be recruited, and the constant evaluation of performance sifted out the less able so that those who finally reached the pinnacles of power and influence usually deserved to be there. Education was an important factor in advancement for the dominant Moslem populations of the empire as well, but for Moslems, it was handled by religious authorities. Education was the time-honored way to learn to recite the Koran, to become imbued with the teachings of Mohammed and the faith of Islam. It was therefore not the responsibility of the state. Popular education was provided in schools (mektep) attached to mosques at first, but gradually these spread and often existed separately from the mosques. They were supported by religious endowment (vakif) and were free, but not compulsory. For many children mektep attendance was the only formal education ever received, and it formed the principal method of socializing Ottoman masses. Education for members of other faiths was supplied in churchconnected schools and performed much the same function as Islamic mektep schooling. Higher education was provided in the medrese, which had a course of study including grammar, syntax, arithmetic, metaphysics, and medicine. A medrese was always attached to a mosque and education was free with small allowances and food provided the students. The medrese was of great importance to Ottoman society, for it trained teachers and all the members of the ulema, which performed functions dealing with the judiciary, public administration, and diplomacy in addition to religious duties (see ch. 11, Religion). Thus the medrese provided the civilian equivalent of the Palace School and was almost as important, for it trained people who controlled religious and cultural communication and were responsible for the conservation of the traditions of the empire. Like the Palace School graduates, those from the medrese were advanced because of merit and ability, and this made possible the greatness of the early empire. Education began to decline in quality after the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (Kanunî Süleyman) in the 16th century, for advancement came to depend upon factors other than merit. The devşirme system fell into disuse because men already recruited had managed to marry and wanted to ensure places for their progeny. A succession of weak sultans and inadequate ministers allowed the Ottoman Empire to fall behind developments in Europe and a series of military defeats were sustained, until the humiliation of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (Kutchuk Kainardji) in 1774 made the government realize that something had to be done (see ch. 3, Historical Setting). During the reigns of Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) and Sultan Mahmud II (1809-38), the reaction to the sad state of the Empire began to take effect. The Ottoman Army had not kept up with its European counterparts, and it was decided to strengthen the schools established in the 18th century and open new ones to train officers and bring the army up to modern standards. A new type of army (Nizami Cedid) grew out of the decrees of Sultan Selim, and schools were set up with the assistance of French officers. The men who learned French discovered entire new fields of knowledge, and through them many of the ideas of the French Revolution found their way into Turkey. Reaction came in 1807 when a mutiny in the army resulted in the removal of Selim. Reformers survived, however, and found an avid supporter in Sultan Mahmud II who came to power in 1809. Like Selim, he was interested in reforms that would strengthen the Empire and his own position, but the effects of his reforms were far greater than he imagined. One of his most important acts was the annihilation of the Janissaries in 1826, because their removal made the Sultan freer to act (see ch. 26, The Armed Forces). Mahmud began to send students abroad for education, and, at the same time, opened medical and military schools in the Empire. Sultan Mahmud also planned a new system of primary and secondary civilian schools to train people for government service. These were called rüşdiye schools, and were set up before the death of Mahmud. Curriculum was mainly grammatical and literary. After the death of Mahmud II and the proclamation of the Hatt-i Şerif of Gülhane in 1839, the Ottoman Empire entered the period of reform known as the Tanzimat. The leaders of this time were men who had been educated in the new schools or in foreign countries, and they placed educational reform in the forefront of their programs. An educational commission appointed to examine the situation recommended (in 1846) not the abolition of Moslem schools, but the parallel establishment of a system of secular schools from primary to university level. Progress was slow, but a Ministry of Education was established, and an Academy of Learning (Encümen-i Daniş) was created to prepare textbooks. Some advance was made, and by 1867 the government figures showed 11,008 primary schools with 368,471 students; 108 rüşdiyes with 7,830 students; and 225 students in four specialized higher schools. Non-Moslem millet schools were numbered at 2,495 with 125,404 students. Medrese and military schools were not included in these figures. In 1868, the Galatasaray Lycée was founded, the first school which took students from all millets. The school was a great success, and in 1869 a law was issued which would undertake the comprehensive reorganization of the entire school system. Five levels were to be created: two primary (sibyan and rüşdiye), two secondary (idadiye and sultaniye), with higher special schools and a university at the top. They were to be placed all over the Empire, and curricula and administration were set up. Private schools |