established in 1872, or during the reign of TungChi of the Ching Dynasty, is the oldest newspaper in China. Its head office is a modern fivestoried concrete building, built by the American Trading Company, at 24 Hankow Road, Shanghai. There are more than a hundred rooms in the building, certain of which are divided into three departments-business, editorial and printing. There is also a library, photo-engraving rooms, artists' quarters, and a staff club. The printing machinery is of the latest American type. Fortyeight pages can be printed at a time and 48,000 copies of 12 pages can be printed, folded, deliv

CHINA, 1920

Railway, of 2 ft. 6 in. gauge, which was built by foreign enterprise and was formally opened on June 30, 1876. It was subsequently 'redeemed' by the Chinese, and when the last instalment of the purchase money was paid in October, 1877, the rails were torn up and shipped to Formosa. Ten years later, however, a railway was in operation between Tongshan and Tientsin-the nucleus of the present Peking-Mukden Railway-and in 1897 the section from Peking to Tientsin was opened. China now possesses 6,835 miles of railway, with 2,000 miles more 'under construction.' An Imperial Edict of May 9, 1911, ordered that all trunk

lines, under construction or projected, were to be taken over by the Government, while branch railways were 'to be allowed to be undertaken by the people according to their ability.' This order, which contributed to the unrest that came to a head in the Revolution in October, 1911, had special reference to the Szechuan-Hupeh Railway and the Canton-Hankow Railway. Under the Republic steps have been taken to nationalize railway expansion in China. The movement for keeping railways in the hands of the provinces through which they ran has given place to an appreciation of the advantages of a national system. The present resources of China are not equal to providing the country with the network of railways

1920.-Missions committee on phonetic script. See MISSIONS, CHRISTIAN: China.

1920.-Exclusion of Chinese immigrants from Canada. See IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION: Canada: 1920.

1920. Growth of the railway system."China's railway history began with the Woosung

it requires; but the Government is able to build a certain number of lines and to arrange for the construction of others on terms that do not clash with China's sovereign rights, and are satisfactory to those who contribute the capital. Something in the nature of a railway programme has been agreed upon, and will be carried out as occasion and funds offer. At the same time a distinct effort has been made to unify railway accounts and statistics. A commission for this purpose was appointed in 1913, under the presidency of Yeh Kung-ch'o and C. C. Wang, and the services of Dr. Henry C. Adams, of the United States Interstate Commerce Commission, as adviser were secured. As a result of its labours the various railway systems of whatever nationality have adopted a uniform system of accounts, and statistics of Government Railways in China for the two halfyears in 1915 have been issued."-China Year Book, 1919-1920, p. 214.-See also RAILROADS: 1876-1921.

CHINA, 1920

of famine spread darkly over the Northern provinces, these leaders of the people continued to squander the public substance and to show new seeds of civil strife."-J. O. P. Bland, China, Japan and Korea, pp. 107-109.

1920. Severe famine.-Relief from the United States. Famines in China are frequent and devastating. From earliest days the inhabitants of whole provinces have been decimated by this dread spectre, but due to the unusual density of its population the nation recovers and thrives. Among the various causes that operate to bring about these famines are the periodic floods, the dependence of the country on agriculture and the poor transportation system. The Hwang-ho and Yangtze-Kiang are extremely difficult to control (see above, Geography of China proper), and draining as they do vast territories, thickly peopled, they spread death and ruin when they burst their banks. Although it is most often the rivers that are responsible for famines, droughts and scales not infrequently destroy the crops, and since the Chinese are primarily a grain-eating race and fundamentally dependent on agriculture, the results are disastrous. To make matters worse, China has lacked an adequate transportation system and in times of dire want food cannot be carried in any quantity from one province where it is plentiful to another which is starving. Among the most terrible famines of recent years are those in 1878, 1888, 1906 and 1920. China, continually in difficulties with Japan, torn by civil war, burdened with debts and beset with difficulties from every side, is compelled, in addition, to face a national catastrophe in the terrible conditions of famine prevailing in four of its richest provinces. The South of Chihli, the whole of Honan north of the Yellow River, and the western part of Shantung, an area the population of which is normally from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 people, were for many months without rain, with the result of an almost total failure of crops. By October thousands on thousands were reported to be dying of starvation; people were living on leaves and bark; desperate families were selling or drowning their children; famine refugees were trekking over the naked roads to points of relief. The stories told by eyewitnesses were pitiful in the extreme. Both the Peking Government and the foreign legations took active measures to relieve the famine sufferers. The Chinese Ministries of Finance, Agriculture and Interior appointed a commission to dispense a fund of $1,000,000 to be raised by means of a short-term loan. Another fund of $1,800,000 was undertaken by seven of the southern provinces at the instigation of Tang Shao-li, the Constitutionalist leader. Among other relief organizations was a committee created by the American Minister, Charles R. Crane. But, despite all efforts, Famine, the Third Horseman of the Apocalypse, pursued its inexorable course."Famine and strife in China (New York Times Current History, December, 1920, pp. 458, 459.) 1920 (December).-Plans for new government by Constitutionalist party.-Continued quarrel of the Tuchuns.-Chang Tso-lin's ascendancy. -The military government which had been set up in 1918 at Canton by Sun Yat-sen's party, disintegrated during 1920 and the southern provinces drifted apart from each other. Before the close of the year, however, plans were being made for a new "constitutionalist" government. "Peking, Dec. 24.-Sun Yat-sen, Dr. Wu Ting-fang, Tang Shao-yi and others, leaders of what is called the 'Constitutionalist' faction, until recently intrenched in Shanghai, have gone to Canton and are busy

1920. Failure of the victorious generals to unite China.-Signs of impending conflict between Chang Tso-lin and President Hsu."When, by force of arms, Tuan Chi-jui, Little Hsü, and other leaders of the so-called 'Militarist' faction had been driven from power, it was hoped that the victorious general, Wu Pei-fu, with Chang Tso-lin to support him, would be able to carry through his plan of convening a Citizens' Convention, and thus put an end to the strife of rival Parliaments. Hopes were forcibly expressed by Young China's organs at Shanghai and in the South that the downfall of Tuan's party meant the end of Japanese ascendancy and a prospect of popular government in a united country. But what are the actual results of the struggle? No sooner had the Chihli party, headed by the President and the Tuchuns Chang Tso-lin and Tsao Kun, defeated their opponents, than new symptoms of strife became manifest in the camp of the victors. Some of them (notably the President) began to display unmistakable signs of sympathy for the defeated Anfu leaders who had sought refuge and protection as guests of the Japanese Minister. Tuan Chi-jui, allowed to retire, with the honours and profits of war, is living as a prosperous citizen in close proximity to the Presidential mansion. Little Hsü, for whose arrest a large reward was originally offered, has been allowed to escape from the Japanese Legation and is believed to have returned to his former stamping-grounds in Mongolia. The 'two traitors,' Tsao Ju-lin and Lu Tsung-ju, removed from office in disgrace as the result of the students' violent agitation two years ago because of their financial dealings with Japan, are now [written in 1921] the President's honoured guests and confidential advisers. General Wu Pei-fu has been relegated to the background by common consent of the scheming politicians, and with him the National Convention idea has been quietly shelved. Hardly had they made an end of congratulations and rejoicings over the defeat of the Anfu faction, than Chang Tso-lin and Tsao Kun began insisting on their respective claims to any money that might be forthcoming, for payment of the expenses of their week's campaign (the combined total of these claims, as stated by the native press, amounting to some $40,000,000). At the same time, they began to compete with each other to secure the disbanded troops of the two Frontier Defence Corps, while the President, on his side, proceeded to strengthen his own hand by recruiting two new brigades of troops through his representative, Wang Huai-ching. So, while the shadow

with the organization of a new government to supersede or rejuvenate the defunct 'Canton Military government.' They purpose, it is understood here, to call theirs an 'extraordinary' government, and its purpose is to call an 'extraordinary' parliament and elect an 'extraordinary' President in the person of Sun Yat-sen. After union with the north has been effected they purpose to drop the term 'extraordinary' and become the government for all of China. Dr. Sun is said to have issued a call to each of the ninety-six districts in the Province of Kwantung to contribute $30,000, to be employed in the organization of the new government and in the training of troops, including 30,000 for a special bodyguard. He is further alleged to have in mind a union of the southern and southwestern provinces into a 'constitution preserving league,' with the object of presenting a united front against the north. In the opinion of observers in Peking, however, this effort in the south is eclipsed by interest in the alleged threecornered fight for domination between General Chang Tso-lin, in Mukden; General Tsao Kun, in Paotingfu, and the President in Peking. A great deal of jockeying has been going on between the two military factors, and it is even alleged that the Urga rebellion has been staged by Chang Tso-lin in order to furnish an excuse to send some of Tso Kun's troops there and thus weaken his position. The latter, though, seemingly is alive to the strategy in question, and has refused to send troops, arguing that it is General Chang's territory and the responsibility is his. There are persistent rumors, which are as persistently denied in official quarters, that a Cabinet reorganization is pending and that the next Cabinet will be more subservient to Chang Tso-lin."-New York Tribune, Jan. 23, 1921.

1921.-Japanese interest in consortium in China. See JAPAN: 1918-1921: As third of the great world powers.

1921.-Status of education. See EDUCATION: Modern developments: 20th century: General education: China; RECREATION: 1914-1921.

1921. Question of Chinese Eastern Railway. See RAILROADS: 1876-1921.

1921.-China and Monroe Doctrine in League of Nations Covenant.-On April 5 the Chinese government submitted an amendment to Article 21 of the League Covenant to the Amendment Committee of the League of Nations at Geneva Article 21 of the Covenant reads:-"Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international agreements, such as treaties of arbitration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace." The amendment proposed by China read:-"The Monroe Doctrine is recognized as not incompatible with any disposition of the present compact."

CHINA, 1921-1922

China. Germany shows herself all eagerness to repair wrongs, to meet expenditures, and to offer reparation on a liberal scale. Thus, in a note accompanying the agreement from the German representative to the Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs, it is declared that, in addition to indemnifying China according to the terms set forth in the treaty of Versailles, Germany is also willing to refund to the Chinese authorities the internment expenses of German militarists in China. As to the war indemnity, this note declares that Germany agrees to pay in advance a portion thereof in a lump sum, equal to one-half of the proceeds from the liquidated German property and a half of the values of the sequestrated, but not yet liquidated, German property. This lump sum will be paid, as to $4,000,000, in cash, and as to the balance in Tsin-Pu and Hu-Kwang railway bonds. In return for these and other undertakings, China agrees that, immediately on ratification, China's Trading with the Enemy Act will cease to be effective, and all German trade-marks which had been recognized at the custom house will recover their validity, if again registered by the owner; that Germany may appoint her consuls and consular agents in China as before the rupture of diplomatic relations; and that, whilst China shall enjoy, as regards Germany, complete fiscal autonomy, she agrees that the German trader shall never be called upon to pay 'any imposts, taxes or contributions' higher than those paid by the Chinese themselves. The agreement is at all points entirely reciprocal, but, in view of the fact that the Chinese trader in Germany is quite a negligible quantity, whilst the German trader in China, in the days before the war, was the most important foreign trader in China, the exact value of this reciprocity is apparent. The fact is that the outbreak of the war, in 1914, interrupted in China one of the most astounding pieces of trade exploitation which Germany had ever undertaken Germany was engaged in a tremendous effort to monopolize the Chinese market, and to this end nothing was spared. German subsidized goods literally flooded China, and the German merchant, by a persistent policy of underselling, was fast ousting all competitors and making giant strides toward securing the monopoly aimed at."-Christian Science Monitor, July 19, 1921.

1921-1922.-Position of the Tuchuns.-President Hsu forced by General Chang to accept a dictated cabinet.-Premier Liang Shi-yi forced to resign by General Wu.-"North and South, not to mention East and West, are still at war [1921], in the sense that five super-Tuchuns and seventeen lesser satraps maintain armed forces in the field, and even more on paper. But these forces are not seriously engaged in any systematic warfare for the assertion of clearly-defined political principles. The only real warfare now waged is the same old struggle for place and patronage and pelf which has gone on, grim and silent, for centuries around and about the seats of the mighty in Peking. Moreover, there is no longer any serious pretence of vital difference between North and South. . . And the real question in China to-day is, how to limit the power and rapacity of these Tuchuns, how to bring under the authority of the Central Government those who, during the past six years, have had time not only to taste the sweets of independent power, but to perfect, each in his own province, the machinery of self-determination."-J. O. P. Bland, China, Japan and Korea, pp. 90-91.-After his victories at the close of 1920 "it was Chang who assumed the right to occupy Peking and to reform the Gov

1921 (July).-Chino-German agreement.-"The general agreement between China and Germany which became effective on the first of the present month [July, 1921], must in many ways be regarded as a signal triumph for German diplomacy. It is true that, superficially viewed, the agreement amounts to no more than a full restoration, with certain necessary changes, of the status quo ante bellum. But when the nature of Germany's relations with China, especially in the matter of trade, before the war are understood, the significance of the present agreement is at once appreciated. Germany has evidently laid herself out to treat China with marked liberality. The attitude of a grudging, not to say truculent, submission to a force majeure, so evident in her dealings with the other Allies, is entirely absent in the case of

ernment. Chang, furthermore, won for himself the appointment of Inspector General of the three Manchurian provinces-Feng-tien, Kirin and Heilung-kiang. . . . Wu began a period of watchful waiting, to see what Chang would accomplish toward the calling of a new national convention to establish a Government on a democratic basis, and toward the ousting of Japanese influence at Peking.... He [Wu] was sent by the Peking Government to suppress a revolt in Hunan, engineered, it was said, by Canton. The Canton faction accuses him of ruthless cruelty and atrocity in quelling this uprising. However this may be, Wu clung to his rôle of super-patriot. After witnessing various attempts of Chang Tsolin to reform the Peking régime, he came out in open opposition to Chang last December [1921], when the Mukden dictator went to the capital and forced President Hsu to accept a dictated Cabinet, headed by one Liang Shi-yi. It may safely be said that all China was indignant at the elevation to office of this notorious personage, who had worked hand in glove with Yuan Shihkai in his attempts to make himself Emperor, and who had, incidentally, amassed a fortune. Wu immediately assumed a threatening attitude. ... Liang, in view of the public outcry against him, and terrorized by General Wu's threats, reluctantly retired to Tientsin, ostensibly on 'sick leave.' Tsu Chu-chi took his place as acting Premier, with Dr. Yen as Foreign Minister.. Wu's action in ousting Liang, the puppet of Chang Tso-lin, was, of course, a direct challenge to the Manchurian dictator."-New York Times Current History, June, 1922, pp. 397-398.

1921-1922.-Invited to attend conference on limitation of armaments.-Progress at conference. See WASHINGTON CONFERENCE; U. S. A.: 1921 (July-August).

1922 (April-May).-Civil war between Generals Chang Tso-lin and Wu Pei-fu.-General Wu victorious.-"General Chang Tso-lin began dispatching troop trains southward from Mukden about the middle of April. Some 70,000 of his soldiers poured in through the Great Wall and were garrisoned in the vicinity of Peking. General Wu was mustering his army, estimated at 80,000 men, in Shantung and other points. Chang's troops occupied all the railroads leading from Tientsin, and established camps within eleven miles east, north and south of the foreign concessions. President Hsu had issued a general appeal for conciliation, and had sent a special plea to the Mukden war lord to avoid civil war, but Chang had refused to listen. Wu's position was strengthened by the departure of General Tsaokun, Military Governor of Chih-li, thus leaving Wu free to enter this province, and relieving Tsaokun of responsibility. All southbound trains had been held up by Wu's forces. The situation became tense as the opposing armies drew closer. General Chang's troops took possession of Peking and Tientsin on April 21, replacing the local police force. The Peking-Pukow railway had been cut by Chang's men south of Tientsin.

The

first active step of hostility occurred on April 23, when the Tientsin-Pukow railway was torn up at Machang by the Wu Pei-fu forces. Peking was isolated.... Tsu Chu-chi, the Acting Premier, telegraphed to the civil and military Governors of all the provinces saying that the existence of the republic was threatened, and asking each province to send a commissioner to Peking to devise means to rid China of her private armies, which had grown to such an extent that they made any Cen

CHINA, 1922

the bombardment of the city and the damaging of foreign property or the killing of any of their nationals. By April 30 the war front extended from Machang, on the Pukow Railroad, westward to Paoting-fu, on the Peking-Hankow Railroad, thence north to Changtsin-tien. The fighting at Changtsin-tien centred about the Marco Polo Bridge. Many people owning Summer homes on the hills outside Peking could follow the progress of the fighting at this point. Legation guards had been reinforced, and all foreigners were displaying their national flags. Thousands of Chinese in the outlying district came into the city, bearing all their money, valuables, and household goods. Wounded were brought in from the front the same day. Two warships of the Chinese Navy joined Wu, with whom they declared their sympathies, and were proceeding from Chefu to Shanhai-kwan with the purpose of shelling and destroying the Mukden Railway, thus cutting Chang's rear. The fighting continued unabated through Sunday at Changtsin-tien. By May 1 the tide of battle

CHINA, 1922

was rolling ever nearer Peking.

Hundreds had been killed upon each side. It became known that the fighting at Changtsin-tien was being conducted by General Feng Yu-Hsiang, the ‘Christian General,' who was showing brilliant strategy. Already it was becoming evident that Wu's star was in the ascendant. The cannonading ceased on the morning of May 2. The bodies of 2,000 fallen soldiers lay on the battlefield. New battles south of the city had begun. Wu was bringing up heavy reinforcements. He took personal command at Machang on May 3. On May 4 it was definitely stated that Chang had suffered heavy reverses on all fronts, and his troops were driven headlong out of Changtsin-tien. Many of them boarded trains and sped to Fengtai, where they vainly strove to make a stand. On May 5 Wu's victory was recognized by Peking. Chang's guard was disarmed inside the capital. Wu's control was recognized by President Hsu. The President on May 6 issued orders dismissing Chang as Inspector General of Manchuria, and calling for the arrest of Premier Liang, the Finance Minister and the Minister of Communications. General Wu was making no attempt to enter the capital and announced that his plans for reorganizing the Government had not changed. He intimated that the President would temporarily remain in office. Wu still faced a danger

of Chang's recovery, and also the possibility of an attack by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, who had remained strangely inactive in the South."-New York Times Current History, June, 1922, pp. 398-400.

1922 (June).-Resignation of President Hsu Shih-chang.-Li Yuan-hung, next president.Convening of 1917 parliament.-"President Hsu Shih-chang tendered his resignation at an extraordinary session of the Cabinet held to-day [June 2]. He was urged to withhold it until the Parliament convenes at Peking. If a vacancy occurs before a new President takes office, Acting Premier Tsu Chu-chi will act. The old republican Parliament of China, which has the backing of General Wu Pei-fu, recent victor over Chang Tso-lin, convened at Tientsin to-day for the first time since it was dissolved in 1917, and adopted a program aimed at the unification of China. The President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House issued a statement in which they said the old Parliament planned to publish a manifesto, declaring President Hsu Shih-chang deposed. They then will offer the Presidency to Li Yuan-hung, who was President from June, 1916, to July 1, 1917, and who was forced out of office by the militarists. The Parliament which is in session at Tien-tsin plans to move to Peking when its preliminary program is completed and formally assume charge as the nation's legislative body. Members of the old Parliament who are at Canton and Shanghai have been urged to proceed to Peking without delay to take part in the deliberations. It was announced to-day that during the sessions at Peking the railroad between the capital and Tien-tsin will be under guard to prevent interference from possible obstructionists. The text of President

Hsu's offer to resign, which was presented to the Cabinet to-day, follows: 'I am much saddened at the difficulties under which the nation has been suffering. My whole aim has been for a peaceful solution to relieve the severe sufferings of the common people. I have read with interest the plan proposed whereby Dr. Sun Yat Sen and myself should both resign and a new President be elected by Parliament. This seems fair. I sympathize with any plan to relieve the country and am prepared to relinquish my duties and position as

CHINA, CONSTITUTION

President as soon as a successor can be determined upon.' The text has been communicated to Dr. Sun Yat Sen, head of the South China Government, with an invitation to follow the example of President Hsu, thus removing what the authors of the proposal declared is the only obstacle to reunification of China. Additional strength for the revived Republican parliament is found in the announcement that General Chen Chiung-ming, military power of South China, who a few days ago demanded Dr. Sun's resignation, has declared his intention to support the movement launched at Tien-tsin."-New York Times, June 3, 1922.

ALSO IN: Encyclopædia Sinica.-H. Borel, New China.-M. Broomhall, Chinese empire.-J. Cantlie and C. S. Jones, Sun Yat Sen and the awakening of China.-S. G. Cheng, Modern China.-F. Coleman, Far East unveiled.-R. K. Douglas, Europe and the Far East.-H. A. Giles, Civilization of China.-T. H. Liddell, China, its marvel and mystery.-H. B. Morse, International relations of the Chinese empire (1911-1918), 3 vs.— E. H. Parker, China, her history, diplomacy and commerce.-E. T. C. Werner, China of the Chinese. H. L. Yen, Survey of constitutional development in China.-E. A. Ross, Changing Chinese.-F. Brinkley, Japan and China.-R. Cordier, Histoire des Relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales.-H. C. Thompson, China and the powers.-B. L. P. Weale, Manchu and Muscovite. -H. A. Giles, Chinese literature.-E. H. Parker, China and religion.-China, Social and economic conditions (Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1912)-A. H. Smith, Chinese characteristics.-A. R. Colquhoun, China in transformation.-L. Richard, Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire (1908).—A. J. Brown, Chinese Revolution.-E. Chavannes, Memoires historiques (1895-1905).-H. A. Giles, Chinese biographical dictionary.-F. Hirth, Ancient history of China.-J. MacGowan, Imperial history of China.-Mayers, Chinese reader's

manual.

Art. See ART: Distribution; ARCHITECTURE: Oriental: China; PAINTING: Chinese; SCULPTURE: India, China and Japan; TEMPLES: Stage of culture represented by temple architecture.

Education. See EDUCATION: Ancient: B. C. 22nd-6th centuries: China; EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL.

Historiography. See HISTORY: 14. Literature. See CHINESE LITERATURE. Military organization.-Changes from ancient to modern times. See MILITARY ORGANIZATION: 25. Monetary system.-History of coinage. See MONEY AND BANKING: Ancient: China; and MONEY AND BANKING: Modern period: 20th century: China.

Music, Development of. See MUSIC: Ancient: B. C. 2852-478.

CHINA, Constitution of.-The struggle of the Chinese for constitutional government was one of sudden growth in the twentieth century, and was still unsettled in 1922. The importance of this movement dominated the history of China from 1908 to 1914, when the Constitutional Compact was accepted by the forces then in control of China. Since then, revolution has followed revolution, and a separate government has been set up at Canton for South China, leaving the status of the constitution more or less undetermined.-See also CHINA: 1905-1908; 1908 (December); 1909 (October-November); 1911 (April-December); 1912; 1914.

Constitution Compact of the CHUNG HUA MIN Kuo, translated by SAO-KE ALFRED SZE, transla