ited the place, in 410 A. D., it was a mass of desolate ruins, and there is no indication that it has since been occupied. This fact gives exceptional interest to the excavations now in progress, for they are bringing to light buildings more ancient than any previously known in India. More interesting even than Kapilavastu is the discovery of the Lumbini Garden, the traditional birthplace of Gautama. The sacred spot has been found marked by another of Asoka's pillars, on which the inscription is perfect. This is also in Nepalese territory, five miles from the British frontier. The pillar stands on the western edge of a mound of ruins, about a hundred yards in diameter, and on the south side of the mound is the tank in which the child's mother bathed after his birth. Another discovery which was made in a stupa, or brick tumulus, close to the British frontier, is that of relics of Buddha himself. These consist only of fragments of bone, which were deposited in a wooden vessel that stood on the bottom of a massive coffer, more than four feet long and two feet deep, cut out of a solid block of fine sandstone. This coffer was buried under eighteen feet of masonry, composed of huge bricks, each sixteen inches long. The wooden vessel was decayed, and with it was an exquisitely finished bowl of rock crystal, the largest yet discovered in India, and also five small vases of soapstone. All these vessels were partially filled, in honor of the relics, with a marvellous collection of gold stars, pearls, topazes, beryls, and other jewels, and of various objects delicately wrought in crystal, agate, and other substances. An inscription on the lid of one of the soapstone vases declares the relics to be those of Buddha himself, and the characters in which the inscription is written are substantially the same as those of the Asoka inscriptions, and indicate that the tumulus was constructed between 300 and 250 B. C."-London Times, May, 1898.-The relics discovered, as described above, were presented by the Indian government to the king of Siam, the only existing Buddhist monarch, with the proviso that he offer a portion of them to Buddhists of Ceylon and Burmah.

See also BUDDHISM; BRAHMANISM: Essential features; RELIGION: B. C. 600.

ALSO IN: P. Bigandet, Life or legend of Gaudama (tr. from the Burmese).-W. W. Rockhill, Life of Buddha (tr. from Tibetan texts).

BUDDHISM.-Buddha and his mission."The Brahmans had firmly established their power 600 years before Christ. But after that date a new religion arose in India, called Buddhism, from the name of its founder, Gautama Buddha. This new religion was a rival to Brahmanism (q. v.) during more than a thousand years. About the ninth century A. D. Buddhism was driven out of India. But it is still professed by 500 millions of people in Asia, and has more followers than any other religion in the world."-W. W. Hunter, Brief history of the Indian peoples, p. 74.-"In early India, some 2,500 years ago, there was a general belief that there was an abiding principle, a self or soul, within man which persisted after death. The soul received rewards in heaven and rebirth on earth in ameliorated conditions of life, if the Karma, or action of previous existences, had been good. It was awarded penalties in hell and rebirth in degraded conditions of life if its actions had been evil. Therefore extreme asceticism came to be an ideal whereby man could free his Soul from both good and evil actions. In the midst of such beliefs the Buddha, or Enlightened One, was born about 560 B. C.-He held that the universe a ceaseless ever-becoming, in which imper

was

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manence even the gods participated. In such a doctrine there could be no abiding principles such as God and the Soul, or Self. If this were so, it might be well asked why man should weary himself with good deeds or with asceticism. Actions can only lead to new existences, with their sufferings of birth, disease, sorrow, old age, and death. Were it not better to seclude oneself from the world and live a life of concentrated thought, wherein all attachment to fleeting pleasures of the senses might fade away and man gain a haven of rest in quietism? In Benares many seekers after truth abandoned their asceticism and flocked to hear the new solution of the here and hereafter as taught by Buddha. It is recorded that, at Buddha Gaya, one thousand Brahmans joined the middle path of monastic quietude. Throughout Bihar and Oudh the Buddha gathered in the people to listen to his teaching and to wonder at the yellow robes of his followers and at the wealth which was poured at their feet. The people had been accustomed to the proud reserve and vaunted divine knowledge of Brahman priests. They had given alms to Jain ascetics and half-crazed Yogis. Men had worshipped the Brahmans and their gods, they had lived in fear and trembling at the thought that their slightest neglect of reverence towards the Brahmans and their sacrifices might doom their souls to perpetual torments in hells or to rebirth in foul and unclean new forms of life. these terrors of life were now to be swept away and nothing abiding left of mind or matter, or of God or soul. All humanity was to receive, irrespective of caste distinctions, knowledge of a saddened world wherein there was no hope. Love towards each other and mutual forbearance could alone give some momentary relief from sorrow in a life which had no more permanency than had a quickly passing shadow."-R. W. Frazer, Indian thought past and present, pp. 141-143.

All

"Whether the Buddha was really the son of a king or not, it may be regarded as certain that he did not belong to the caste of the Brahmans. There is equally little reason for doubting that he sought for peace first of all among the Brâhmans, then in solitary penance,-yet in both instances in vain, and attained it only by that contemplation absorbing the soul, which became the characteristic of his followers. His wandering life in the garb of a mendicant, his preaching that all who followed him in this might be delivered from sickness, pain, old age, and death, and should strive after Nirvana as the highest goal, the great impression which this doctrine made on men of all classes, if not through the whole of India, yet according to the oldest tradition, in particular districts, the opposition which he encountered from many, the loyal devotion of his disciple Ananda, the few details related of his death-all this cannot belong to the realm of fiction. And this suffices to show us in the Buddha a man, who, whatever may have been the value of his philosophy of life, out of genuine conviction and pity for his fellowmen, chose a life of self-denial and renunciation to realise a great idea and promote the universal salvation."-C. P. Tiele, Outlines of the history of religion to the spread of the universal religions, pp. 134, 135.

Buddha's last discourse.-Essentials of Buddhist doctrine.-"The summary of the main features of his system of beliefs which Gotama is said, in our earliest authorities, to have put before his five friends at Benares, gives us what those authorities held to be most important in his teaching..

"Every word is important, and it is a great pity,

that, in popular works on Buddhism, the expressions have been usually further condensed (which they will not bear), or so altered as to misrepresent the meaning. The full text is as follows:"There are two extremes which he who has gone forth ought not to follow-habitual devotion on the one hand to the passions, to the pleasures of sensual things, a low and pagan way (of seeking satisfaction), ignoble, unprofitable, fit only for the worldly-minded; and habitual devotion, on the other hand, to self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, unprofitable. There is a Middle Path discovered by the Tathâgata-a path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace, to insight, to the higher wisdom, to Nirvana. Verily it is this Aryan Eightfold Path; that is to say Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture.

"Now this is the Noble Truth as to suffering. Birth is attended with pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant; and any craving unsatisfied, that, too, is painful. In brief, the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of individuality) are painful.

"Now this is the noble Truth as to the origin of suffering. Verily! it is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that is accompanied by sensual delights, and seeks satisfaction, now here, now there-that is to say, the craving for the gratification of the senses, or the craving for a future life, or the craving for prosperity.

""Now this is the Noble Truth as to the passing away of pain. Verily! it is the passing away so that no passion remains, the giving up, the getting rid of, the emancipation from, the harbouring no longer of this craving thirst.

"Now this is the Noble Truth as to the way that leads to the passing away of pain. Verily! it is this Aryan Eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct, and Right Mode of Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture.'

"A few words follow as to the threefold way in which the speaker claimed to have grasped each of these four truths. That is all. There is not a word about God or the soul, not a word about the Buddha or Buddhism. It seems simple, almost jejune; so thin and weak that one wonders how it can have formed the foundation for a system so mighty in its historical results. But the simple words are pregnant with meaning. Their implications were clear enough to the hearers to whom they were addressed. They were not intended, however, to answer the questionings of a twentieth-century European student, and are liable now to be misunderstood."-T. W. R. Davids, Early Buddhism, pp. 48-53.

"The Buddha essays in these Four Noble Truths no metaphysical speculations over the why or the wherefore of the universe. A fivefold craving after form, sensations, perceptions, conformations, and consciousness is all that Buddha's simple teachings set before his disciples. The Four Noble Truths held in themselves a code of ethics whereby all people, irrespective of caste or religious belief, could become free in this world from the pains and sorrows of life. [See ETHICS: India.] It was ignorance of the path to the cessation of suffering that the Buddha spent forty-five years of his lifetime in efforts to eradicate. To obtain freedom from desire and actions which attached themselves to desires, Buddha preached no doctrine of ex

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treme asceticism so common in India from the earliest times. Monastic middle-life was ordained for those who sought freedom from ignorance, but who might find the allurements of the world too strong for a life of contemplation. By a life of intense concentration of thought and self-culture each man could find for himself the truth of Buddha's contention that when ignorance ceased actions would lose their potency by non-attachment to outside objects and pleasures. For those Buddhists who remained in the world, as lay members of the order, there was given a moral code by the observance of which they rose above the trammels of caste, above priestly superstitions. Further, the lower classes of the people, in accepting Buddhism, gained the proud position of belonging to a saintly, dignified, and widely revered order. The natural disposition of the lay members to store up merit by charity and good deeds was met to the full in the ample opportunities they had of giving of their alms for the support of the wandering Buddhist monks. Buddhism set before the people ideals of charity, chastity, and self-repression-ideals ever revered in the best of Indian belief and in the best of Indian literature. . . . To the simple teachings of the Buddha after ages added learned discussions on every conceivable cosmological, psychological, and even ontological problem that perplexed the thought of their times; the piety, or vanity, of these ages ascribed all their wordy disquisitions to the Buddha, and laid them as tributes of reverence at his feet. The Buddha had ever consistently refused to be drawn by his disciples into any definite statements or metaphysical discussions regarding the nature of the Atman, or Soul, or even respecting the question of the existence or non-existence of a future life after death. It is even suggested that he was not responsible for the first annunciation of the principle underlying the grouping of the Four Noble Truths, for 'those Four Noble Truths are nothing more than the four cardinal principles of Indian medical science applied to the spiritual healing of mankind.' The Wheel of Life gives the Buddhist conception of life as ever becoming, ever passing on like the rim of a moving wheel. The Four Noble Truths had taught that all the suffering and Sorrow of the world arose from the Desire or Thirst for pleasures, existence, and prosperity. The Wheel of Life, or Chain of Causation, as it has been called, gives twelve divisions of life, or causes of existence (nidanas). Here Desire arises from Ignorance, which produces Karma, or deeds, necessitating a new existence for their reward or punishment. In this new life seven stages of early development of life pass till Desire arises, which leads, through self-assertion, to married life, to family cares, thence to old age and death, ending again in Ignorance necessitating new existences. Thus, 'Not to know suffering, not to know the cause of suffering, not to know the cessation of suffering, not to know the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering, this is called Ignorance.'". R. W. Frazer, Indian thought past and present, pp. 157-160.

"Buddhism, though it is a reaction against the Brahmanic hierarchy, is, in fact, an outgrowth of Brahmanism. It rests upon the so-called dogma of the transmigration of the soul, and the Buddhist, like the Brahman, seeks for deliverance from the endless succession of re-births. But it pronounces the Brahmanic penances and abstinence inadequate to accomplish this, and aims at attaining, not union with the universal spirit, but Nirvana, non-existence. Without denying the existence of the devas, at any rate at first, it places

each Buddha, as the Brahmans ranked every ascetic, above them, but it goes a step further, and makes even the supreme Brahma subordinate to a perfect saint. It differed from Brahmanism, as primitive Christianity differed from the Jewish hierarchy, by rejecting outward works or theological knowledge as marks of holiness, and seeking it in gentleness, in purity of heart and life, in mercy and self-denying love for a neighbour. Above all, it is distinguished by its relation to castes. The Buddha comes neither to oppose them, nor to level everything. On the other hand, he adopts the doctrine that men are born in lower or higher castes, determined by their sins or good works in a former existence, but he teaches, at the same time, that, by a life of purity and love, by becoming a spiritual man, every one may attain at once the highest salvation. Caste makes no difference to him; he looks for the man, even in the Chandala; the miseries of existence beset all alike, and his law is a law of grace for all. The Buddhist teaching is, therefore, quite popular in its character, its instrument is preaching rather than 'nstruction, it is not esoteric like the Brahmanic, or intended only for individuals. And while the piety of the Brahman aimed at selfishly securing his own redemption, the Buddhist cannot attain salvation without regard to the well-being of all his fellow creatures. The ideal of the first is a hermit striving to save others. Buddhism, in fact, rejected the authority of the veda, the whole dogmatic system of the Brahmans, their worship, penance, and hierarchy, and simply substituted for them a higher moral teaching. It was a purely ethical revolution; but it would certainly have succumbed beneath this one-sided tendency, had it not in the course of time taken up into itself, under another shape, much of what it had first opposed."-C. P. Tiele, Outlines of the history of religion to the spread of the universal religion, pp. 135-136.-See also BRAHMANISM.

Law of Karma.-"The secret of Buddha's success was, that he brought spiritual deliverance to the people. He preached that salvation was equally open to all men, and that it must be earned, not by propitiating imaginary deities, but by our own conduct. He thus did away with sacrifices, and with the priestly claims of the Brahmans as mediators between God and man. He taught that the state of a man in this life, in all previous and in all future lives, is the result of his own acts (Karma). What a man sows, that he must reap. As no evil remains without punishment, and no good deed without reward, it follows that neither priest nor God can prevent each act from bringing about its own consequences. Misery or happiness in this life is the unavoidable result of our conduct in a past life; and our actions here will determine our happiness or misery in the life to come. When any creature dies, he is born again in some higher or lower state of existence, according to his merit or demerit. His merit or demerit consists of the sum total of his actions in all previous lives. A system like this, in which our whole well-being-past, present, and to come-depends on ourselves, leaves little room for a personal God."-W. W. Hunter, Brief history of the Indian peoples, p. 77.

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The oft-repeated answer is-a deliverance from 'birth and death' (sing sse). The truth is, so it would seem at least, that sorrow was regarded as inseparable from organised life, or from life as a separate item in any condition. And, therefore, without defining it, the primitive belief was that the supreme happiness was exemption from rebirth. Does not this contain in it the germ of the later Pantheism or spiritualism into which the system grew? For, if there is to be no birth, we must go back to the condition before birth began; that is, as it seems, to the condition of the 'Eternal One.' Whether this word Nirvana has not some reference to that condition of a non-breathing life, that is, of the Creator ere he began his creative work (as we speak) is not satisfactorily answered. It has been propounded as a possible explanation of the word, and if it could be borne out, the idea, at any rate, of Nirvana would be brought to a determinate issue. For if, as the Buddhists say, we are possessed of the one nature of Buddha, and if by recovering this we reach our goal of perfection, then this perfection consists in going back to that nature ere it became deluded and darkened by ignorance. At least, the definition of destruction as a part of the formula for Nirvana alludes to the destruction of every part of the being called 'man.' Beyond this, however, we find in the developed form of the doctrine the positive assertion that Nirvana consists in joy, permanence, personality, and purity. 'It may be compared,' Buddha is supposed to say, 'to the absence of something different from itself. In the midst of sorrow there is no Nirvana, and in Nirvana there is no sorrow. So we may justly define Nirvana as that sort of existence which consists in the absence of something essentially different from itself.' Again, in another place, Buddha says: 'I do not affirm that the six organs of sense, &c., are permanent, but what I state is that that is permanent, full of joy, personal, and pure which is left after the organs of sense and the objects of sense are destroyed. When the world, weary of sorrow, turns away and separates itself from the cause of all this sorrow, then by this rejection of it there remains that which I call the "true self," and it is of this I speak when I say it is permanent, full of joy, personal, and pure.' So in the later speculation this thought is repeatedly brought out, that Nirvana is a positive condition of unfettered bliss." -S. Beal, Buddhism in China, pp. 198-199.

Early spread of the teachings.-Work of Asoka.-Persecutions and struggles.-"On the death of Buddha in 543 B. C., [latest authorities accept 488 B. C.] five hundred of his disciples met in a vast cave near Patna, to gather together his sayings. This was the first Council. They chanted the lessons of their master in three great divisions, -the words of Buddha to his disciples; his code of discipline; and his system of doctrine. These became the Three Collections of Buddha's teaching; and the word for a Buddhist Council means literally 'a singing together.' A century afterwards, a Second Council, of seven hundred, was held in 443 B. C., to settle disputes between the more and the less strict followers of Buddhism.

"During the next two hundred years Buddhism spread over Northern India. About 257 B C., Asoka, the King of Magadha or Behar, became a zealous convert to the faith. He was grandson of Chandra Gupta, whom we shall afterwards hear of in Alexander's camp. Asoka is said to have supported 64,000 Buddhist priests; he founded many religious houses; and his kingdom is called the Land of the Monasteries (Vihara or Behar) to this day. Asoka did for Buddhism what the Em

Nirvana.-"Referring to the books, however, we receive definite information as to the early and late belief of northern Buddhists on this subject of Nirvana. It is spoken of as a deliverance consequent on destruction. So Buddha says: 'After my Nirvana, wo-mie-tu-heu, that is, after my body has been destroyed, and in consequence deliverance obtained. But what is the 'deliverance'?

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school called the Great Development School, which is so denominated to distinguish it from the Lesser Development School, common to the north and the south. In additions made by the northern Buddhists are included the fiction of the Western Paradise and the fable of Amitabha and Kwanyin, the Goddess of Mercy. These personages are exclusively northern, and are entirely unknown to the south of Nepaul. In the south the Hindoo traditions in respect to cosmogony and mythology are adhered to more rigidly; while in the north a completely new and far more extensive universe, with divinities to correspond, is represented to exist in the books, and is believed to exist by the people."-J. Edkins, Religion in China, pp. 8, 9.

Tolerant spirit of Buddhism.-"Wherever Buddhism has penetrated, it has abolished human sacrifice, which still prevails in portions of India never yet subjected to its influence. It has constantly discouraged capital punishment; and in many parts of Asia it has succeeded, at various times and for longer or shorter periods, in setting the death penalty aside. 'Buddhism has been violently persecuted at various times and in various countries. It appears never to have dreamed of revenge.' It has been faithful to its principle that truth is not to be imposed by violence; that opinion must be free. Its rejection of bloodshed has been absolute. Beside the history of its peaceful progress, the records of Islam and Christianity are black with tyranny and hate. If it has not prevented civil wars in a colossal empire like China, we must remember that its essential ideas have been a constant restraint on them, and probably contributed, as much as anything, to that social order and national unity through nearly four thousand years, which has been in many respects the most marvellous fact in the political history of mankind. Buddhism reached the conception that all religions have been apprehensions, with greater or less distinctness, of one eternal faith; so that it has felt a kindly yearning towards all of them, sought to find their common good elements, and to give each a place in the theory of its dharma or Law. It assigns one of its highest heavens to the virtuous of other religions. It knows no heathen hated of God, only a common humanity seeking for eternal life. 'When Sakyamuni came to earth,' say the Lamaists, he found that all peoples were not equally capable of receiving his whole law. He therefore gave to each what truths it was able to apprehend, and so spread his blessing over all. And of all these, not one that follows its own light, shall be lost.' . . . Towards Christians Buddhism has always shown this broad hospitality. It was among the Mongolian tribes of Central Asia that they found readiest access; with TschingisKhan and his successors, who gloried in acknowledging one God, and the many ways in which men might serve Him. Marco Polo records the declaration of Kublai-Khan, that he 'reverenced the four great Prophets,-Jesus, Mahomet, Moses, and Buddha.'"-S. Johnson, Oriental religions and their relation to universal religion, PP. 749-751. -See also BUDDHA; BURMA: Religion; CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA; CHINA: Religion of the people; JAINISM; JAPAN: Religions; LAMAS, LAMAISM; MONGOLIA: 1750-1911; MYTHOLOGY: Eastern Asia: Indian and Chinese influences; RELIGION: B. C. 600.

BUDDHIST SCULPTURE. See SCULPTURE: India, China and Japan.

BUDDHIST TEMPLES (in the United States). "The influx into this country of numbers of Chinese and Japanese, even for temporary residence has been attended naturally by the establish

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ment of their prevailing forms of religious worship, and their temples or shrines are to be found in many cities. Almost all are Buddhist, though a few Confucian Assemblies appear to have been formed and a single Shinto temple has been inIcluded with the Japanese Buddhist temples. . . . Chinese places of worship were established in the United States as early as 1852. . . . At the time of the San Francisco earthquake in 1906, there were not far from 100 places of worship in more than 25 cities scattered over 12 states of the Union. Of the number in California, 40 or 50 were destroyed, but only a few have been replaced. Since the revolution of 1911 in China, the custom of worship has to a considerable degree been discontinued among the Chinese and this has been furthered by the lack of any distinct ecclesiastical organization."-United States Census, Religious Bodies 1916, pt. 2, pp. 182-183.-"Japanese Buddhist work in the United States is, on the other hand, in a flourishing condition. The center of administration is in Kyoto, Japan, with a branch office, the 'Buddhist Mission in America' at San Francisco. It is estimated that there are II organized churches and 83 meeting places on the Pacific coast. Statistics give the number of members as 5,639, an increase of 78.2 per cent over 1906."-Ibid, p. 185.

BUDGET, "the annual financial statement which the Chancellor of the Exchequer makes in the House of Commons in a Committee of ways and means. In making this statement the minister gives a view of the general financial policy of the government, and at the same time presents an estimate of the probable income and expenditure for the following twelve months, and a statement of what taxes it is intended to reduce or abolish, or what new ones it may be necessary to impose.To open the budget, to lay before the legislative body the financial estimates and plans of the executive gov't."—Imperial dictionary of the English language. See also CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER.-Mr. Dowell in his "History of taxation," v. 1, ch. 5, states that the phrase "opening the budget" came into use in England during the reign of George III, and that it bore a reference to the bougette, or little bag, in which the chancellor of the exchequer kept his papers. The French, he adds, adopted the term about 1814. The following, however, is in disagreement with Mr. Dowell's explanation: "In the reign of George II. the word was used with conscious allusion to the celebrated pamphlet which ridiculed Sir R. Walpole as a conjuror opening his budget or 'bag of tricks. Afterwards, it must, for a time, have been current as slang; but, as it supplied a want, it was soon taken up into the ordinary vocabulary."-Athenæum, Feb. 14, 1891, p. 213.-Russia published her first budget in 1866, and both Egypt and Turkey began to use the budget system in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The fiscal year, however, is not uniform. Germany, Denmark and England begin their fiscal year, April 1 (before 1832 England began Jan. 1); France, Belgium and Austria, January 1; United States, Canada, Italy and Spain, July 1. The budget has had a place of considerable historical importance in English parliamentary history, and frequent contests have been fought around it. Disraeli introduced a budget in 1852 and was defeated. In 1859 a change of administration delayed the budget. In 1860, due to the ratification of a commercial treaty with France a budget was introduced on February IO. In 1880 two budgets were brought in, one by Disraeli in March and another by Gladstone in June. In 1909 a budget contest of great impor