ance of English and illiteracy to economic loss. Secretary of the Interior Lane, in a letter to President Wilson, says: I beg you to consider the economic loss arising out of this condition (of illiteracy). If the production labor value of an illiterate is less only 50 cents a day than that of an educated man or woman, the country is losing $825,000,000 a year through illiteracy. This estimate is no doubt under rather than over the real loss. The Federal government and the States spend millions of dollars in trying to give information to the people in rural districts about farming and homemaking. Yet 3,700,000 or 10 percent of our country folk cannot read or write a word.1 LABOR TURNOVER IN RELATION TO IGNORANCE OF ENGLISH AND TO ILLITERACY Ignorance of English is a large factor in turnover. It is generally acknowledged that the non-English-speaking and illiterate workmen are the ones most easily discouraged and ready to give up the job. Misunderstandings and suspicion arise among foremen and men through inability to speak a common language. It is only recently that employers have realized the enormous expense entailed in continual replacement of their forces. The first published record of an investigation on a large scale is from a paper by Magnus W. Alexander, head of the training schools of the General Electric Company. In 1912 he made a study of twelve American factories varying in size from 300 to over 10,000 employees. He discovered that 72.8 per cent of all employees engaged during 1912 were entirely new to the factories and that most of the employers utterly failed to realize the appalling waste in continually replacing workers. The group of firms which he studied and which he considered typical "engaged about six and one-third times as many persons during the year as were necessary to account for the permanent increase in the total working force." According to Mr. Alexander's conclusions, at least 22,031 of these changes were unnecessary. By summing up the expenses incurred in training each group, Mr. Alexander finds a total of $831,030 or an average cost of over $37 for each of the 22,031 persons apparently unnecessarily engaged. The items considered in computing cost were (1) hiring, (2) instruction, (3) wear and tear on machinery, (4) reduced 1 Letter quoted in the Official Bulletin, March 16, 1918. production, (5) spoiled work. "This amount will be considerably greater and may reach a million dollars if the decrease of profits due to reduced production and the increase of expenses on account of an enlarged equipment investment are taken into consideration.1 "While one manager estimated the cost of hiring and breaking in an employee at $30 the estimate of all others ranged from $50 to $200 per employee. The great difference in these estimates is no doubt due to the diversity of the industries represented by these managers. Most estimates ranged between $50 and $100." 2 Mr. Alexander's study was more concerned with skilled labor, men who were likely to be English-speaking and literate, and he was primarily interested in the cost of the turnover rather than in its causes. The expense of breaking in men for common labor is of course less than training them for complicated machines. Since Mr. Alexander's investigation, others have been made with varying estimates of the cost of different items. Many consider the total cost more than Mr. Alexander reckoned. Even yet there are many employers who take excellent care of their machinery and equipment, who have not learned the necessity of making a scientific study of the human element in their plants. They do not realize the paramount importance of adapting environment to workers. Men and women naturally shun a place where hazards are reported high, or where conditions are unpleasant. In general, whatever makes men and women feel that they are becoming more efficient, or whatever contributes to more complete adaptation to their surroundings, will reduce the desire. of change. Where factory classes have been in operation even for a short time and on a small scale, there is testimony that they have been a stabilizing factor. In them men and women are dealt with as individuals, and they become conscious of relationships and responsibilities which before they have not felt. LABOR AND EDUCATION One of the healthful signs of the current discussion of "reconstruction," during and since the war, is the realization among increasing numbers that education has been essentially aristoeratic, for the selected few and not for the mass. Organized workers are demanding that the men and women who fill our The Annals of the American Academy, May, 1916, p. 138-40. shops and factories must not for that reason be denied education. They are apprehensive of purely technical schools which train for specialized industry and not for life. The publications of the British Workers' Educational Association are illuminating. "The really great thing is that liberal education (in opposition to specialized education for undeveloped minds) should be open to all who can profit by it." The platform of the Labor Party of Greater New York likewise calls for general, liberal training as a prerequisite to specialization. The educational program of the State Federation of Labor is broad and progressive. 1 Factory classes are only a breaking of the ground, but intelligently conducted, they atone in a slight measure for past deficiencies and prepare the way for wider training. In immediate results, they contribute to three great essentials in human relationships: sympathy, loyalty and creative impulse. With the growth of huge establishments, the direct relation between employer and man has gone. Unskilled laborers in a factory are far removed from supervision and acquaintance of the general manager, himself often an employee of some one more powerful. During the war when full production was a grim necessity, this weakness in our industrial system was recognized and we had immense mass meetings of workmen addressed by employers, who were internationally important. The effect on production of this rather artificial contact was magical. Each man, in whatever humble capacity, was made to feel that he personally had a responsibility in the nation's crisis and that he had a loyalty to show to his employer and country. These groups of men and women, gathered for study in classes, have in a degree the old-time personal contact, for they are dealt with as individuals and not as part of a machine. The teacher is interested in their history, their country, and their family. The foremen inquire about their progress. This little leaven goes a long way in transforming the spirit of a large group. Many thoughtful writers are discussing the creative impulse in industry and its relation to present industrial questions. Some wise employers are realizing that they cannot get intelligent whole-hearted co-operation until their employees have a more thorough knowledge of the industry than they can get by monotonous repetition of one operation. For employees handicapped 1" What Is Democratic Education?" See, too, "Labor and the Commonwealth," G. D. H. Cole. by ignorance of English, such knowledge is very difficult. Robert Wolf, at a meeting of the Taylor Society in March, 1917, said: The opportunity for self-expression, which is synonymous with joy in work, is something that the workman is entitled to, and we employers who feel that management is to become a true science must begin to think less of the science of material things and think more of the science of human relationship. Our industries must become humanized, otherwise there will be no relief from the present state of unrest in the industries of the world. . . . It is beginning to be understood that when we deny to vast numbers of individuals the opportunity to do creative work, we are violating a great universal law.1 In the appendix is a list of cities where in one or more factories these classes for the non-English-speaking and illiterate are held. This educational experiment is not confined to one locality but is being tried throughout the country. Lists of firms in different cities are given in the appendix. The opinions of employers and organizations of the value of this work also are interesting and instructive. These are also found in the appendix. ORGANIZATION OF FACTORY CLASSES Education of adults as of children is rightly the responsibility of the community. In the organization of factory classes, public school officials and teachers in co-operation with plant officials should plan and direct the work. Other civic and educational associations well may be asked to co-operate. Three things are necessary to the success of this undertaking: (1) sympathy and active help of employers; (2) skilled teachers especially qualified for a task requiring energy, resourcefulness, tact and efficiency; (3) interest and determined effort of the men and women who need the instruction. To gain the confidence of the workers and knowledge of their needs, leaders of different national groups ought to be asked to serve on committees. CENSUS OF THE PLANT A director of educational work should be appointed. Foremen then are called together by the manager and plans carefully explained by the director. In some places, mass meetings of the employees are addressed, through interpreters, by manager and 1 Bulletin of the Taylor Society, Mar. 1917. foremen; in others, smaller groups are reached more effectively. A simple explanation of proposed classes is made carefully and emphasis laid on the point that English is necessary for the workers' protection and advancement. Their own countries, languages and cultural contributions ought to be given generous recognition and no suggestion made of a compulsory substitution of English for their native tongue. The advantages of proficiency in two languages might well be stressed. After preliminary explanations, each employee or someone acting for him ought to fill out cards supplied by the State Department of Education giving (1) name, address, age, country of birth; (2) length of time in this country; (3) citizen or alien; (4) first papers, time since taking them; (5) amount of schooling in native country and in America; (6) ability to speak, read and write English; (7) married or single; (8) members of immediate family; (9) school attended by children; (10) length of time in the employ of firm; (11) job; (12) check number; (13) foreman; (14) hours of work; (15) desire to attend night school; (16) desire to attend factory classes. According to information obtained in the registration, classes of different grades may be formed. COMPOSITION OF CLASSES Whether employees in classes shall be separated according to nationality, age, sex, literacy, knowledge of English, etc., are matters to be decided from varying conditions in different factories. Generally speaking, in beginners' classes the best work is obtained from careful grading, based on age, nationality, literacy and understanding of English. Simple tests for grading may be obtained by sending to the State Department of Immigrant Education. TEACHERS Teachers for this work ought to be the best of the community and sufficient salaries paid to induce trained men and women to take up this highly skilled teaching. Only in exceptional instances is it advisable to have foremen or other plant employees give instruction, and then they should have an intensive course in methods. A man may be a good mechanic, a competent fore man, employment manager, or welfare worker, and still be unfitted for teaching. Public school teachers should have intensive training from some shop executive in shop vocabulary, safety direc |