TABLE A.-Summary of obligations by activity and program-Continued 2. SUPPORT OF SCIENTIFIC MANPOWER 2(a) Grants and contracts: 2(a)-1 Fellowship program_ 2(a)-2 Institutes program. 2(a)-3 Special projects in science education program. 2(a)-7 President's Committee on Scientists and Engi neers.. Subtotal, grants and contracts... 2(b) Program development, operation and evaluation: Personal services.. Travel.... Other costs.. Actual, fiscal year 1957 $3, 353, 605 9, 629, 686 688, 185 629, 840 279, 465 117, 517 14, 698, 298 352, 017 26, 597 222, 874 601, 488 15, 299, 786 Subtotal, program development, operation and evalua- Total... 3. EXECUTIVE DIRECTION AND MANAGEMENT [Summary of obligations by organization] National Science Board.. Office of the Director_. Total... Grand total_. TABLE B.-Summary of budget obligations and estimates Actual fiscal 29, 667 174, 111 478, 239 682, 017 38, 629, 991 Estimated fiscal year 1959 Appendix 4 THE ROLE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE 1 I. INTRODUCTION 2 The role of the Federal Government in international science must be evaluated in its relation to the foreign policy objectives of the United States. Broadly stated, these objectives include the building up of free world strength, both militarily and economically, while at the same time avoiding war and striving for the easement of international tensions. Prior to World War II the role of science and technology as an effective instrument in the execution of American foreign policy was not widely recognized. Political and economic factors were the predominant ingredients of our foreign relations. The important part that science and technology can play in concert with political, economic, and other aspects of international relations began to emerge during World War II. There is still, however, need for a greater recognition of the usefulness of this new instrument coupled with a more general and skillful application of its potentialities. One purpose of this brief study is to suggest ways this may be brought about. These are cogent reasons for U.S. interest in the advancement of science internationally. It is obviously in the interest of the United States to further the progress of scientific research in this country. Effective exchange of scientific information with other countries, the exchange of students, teachers, and research scientists, and our participation in international conferences all serve the direct and immediate purpose of advancing scientific research in the United States both by increasing our scientific knowledge and by improving the education and training of our scientists. It is also in the interest of the United States to encourage and support the advancement of science in countries of the free world. Such encouragement and support furthers in the following ways the achievement of major U.S. objectives in the world today. 1. Scientific discoveries and achievements bolster the domestic and external prestige of nations, particularly the smaller, weaker or underdeveloped ones, and thereby constitute a constructive outlet to the nationalist aspirations of many of these countries while at the same time broadening the responsible base of the community of nations. 2. Scientific advancement both underlies and facilitates economic development and increased productivity, which in turn bring a higher standard of living. 3. In addition to being essential for maximum progress in science in this country, cooperation among scientists and exchange of scientific information contributes to the easement of international tensions. Furthermore, the part that the United States plays in initiating or supporting such activity can be effectively used to prove the peaceful nature of U.S. intentions internationally. 4. New scientific knowledge, particularly of the "basic" category, is urgently needed by the United States. This country is faced with a growing shortage of scientists. Increased efforts in the pursuit of fundamental research by creative scientists in other countries would partially solve both these problems. While new fundamental knowledge cannot and should not be confined within national boundaries, and while information on fundamental discoveries in friendly countries or the United States itself eventually become available in all countries, it is assumed that the United States will continue to maintain a leading position relative to the speed and efficiency with which the results of basic research are converted into technological advancement. 1 Report of the National Science Foundation, 1955. * Significance of this report is referred to on pp. VIII and IX of the foreword. II. PRESENT INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE ACTIVITIES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT The activities now conducted or supported by the U.S. Government and which include or involve international scientific cooperation are described briefly below. A. Exchange of scientists Although the Department of State and other agencies conduct sizable exchange of persons programs which include the exchange of scientists, the only activities designed specifically for scientists are: 1. Foreign Research Scientists Program (International Cooperation Administration of the Department of State) costing about $200,000 annually and bringing about 50 scientists to the United States each year. 2. Training of foreign scientists in the United States by the Atomic Energy Commission atoms-for-peace program and now covering about 150 scientists annually. 3. Programs to bring foreign scientists to the United States to consult on military research problems and covering 500 to 1,200 scientists per year (Department of Defense). 4. Travel grants for attendance by U.S. scientists at international scientific meetings (National Science Foundation). B. Support of scientific research in foreign countries The Department of Defense and the International Cooperation Administration are the principal supporters, among Federal agencies, of scientific research overseas. The National Institutes of Health give some support as does the National Science Foundation in a small number of cases. The Atomic Energy Commission is initiating a program to transfer reactors to foreign countries over the next year or so. Activities of the Federal Government in the support of science in foreign countries are based upon a variety of objectives. Methods include the financing of facilities and scientific equipment (AEC and ICA); purchase of research and development (Department of Defense); and longer run training of foreign scientists (college contract program of ICA). Including the new AEC reactor program, present support of research and development in foreign countries (largely indirect) is at the level of somewhere between $25 million and $50 million annually, although the Department of Defense programs are very largely applied and developmental in character. C. Exchange of scientific and technical information Exchange programs dealing with scientific and technical information are being carried on by a large number of agencies having their own arrangements with agencies and institutions abroad. The formal exchange program of the Library of Congress including Government documents relating to science and technology has been centralized mechanically in the International Exchange Service of the Smithsonian Institution. The State Department has responsibility for procurement of requested publications in foreign countries. It is impossible to provide a precise estimate of the total cost of individual agency programs, although a figure of $2 to $3 million for the entire effort of the Federal Government in this area would not be too far off. D. Scientific representation and liaison At the present time science liaison activities of the U.S. Government are spread among a number of agencies: The State Department proper, the Department of the Army, the Office of Naval Research, the Air Force, and the International Cooperation Administration. There are in addition, military officers and civilian scientists in many embassies and overseas commands who perform science liaison and reporting functions incident to other responsibilities. E. Science programs conducted by international organizations The two principal international organizations having science programs as such are the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The UNESCO science program is at the level of about $1 million annually, of which the United States provides about 30 percent, or $300,000. The ICSU program is at a $250,000-$300,000 level, of which the U.S. share is about $9,000, excluding the U.S. portion of the UNESCO subsidy of ICSU. The International Geophysical Year program (a one-shot program) is under the auspices of ICSU, but each nation is providing the funds for its own participation in this activity. The U.S. scientific program of the IGY is funded by the National Science Foundation. III. DEFICIENCIES IN PRESENT POSITION OF THE U.S. GOVERNMENT IN RELATION TO INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE A. Present activities and programs are diffused The present activities of the Federal Government in the area of "international science" are diffuse and ill-defined. The level of financial support is fairly high when "support of science" is defined broadly, and not inconsiderable even when defined more narrowly. Depending upon one's definition of "science," low and high estimates might range from $5 million to $60 million annually. However, more important than the level of support is the character of the support and the method by which it is extended. With few exceptions, present activities are specifically oriented toward identifiable military, economic, intelligence, or political objectives and are not directed toward the support of science as an activity important in its own right as a contributing factor to national and international welfare. B. Scientific research is becoming increasingly global in character Science has traditionally depended for its progress on the activities of individual workers in many countries. An excellent example of this is the discovery and development of atomic fission and fusion. The basic work in atomic fission was carried on by investigators in Europe. Through this work American scientists were able to develop effectively practical uses of this important phenomenon. In addition, there are fields of science which must be dealt with on a global basis. The earth sciences fall into this category, since only by a worldwide study of earth phenomena can effective progress be made in such fields as meterology, earth magnetism, the ionosphere, and seismology. The United States has no monopoly on creative scientific talent, and the occasions are becoming ever more frequent where research projects undertaken in this country require, for their effective and timely completion, the cooperation and participation of scientists abroad. Legislative authorization is contained in the National Science Foundation Act of 1950 for the kind of cooperation outlined above; however, such authorization is limited to basic research, and no general authorization exists for any coordinated effort by the Federal Government to draw upon foreign scientific resources in behalf of science in the United States. C. Present programs leave many gaps Although the existing programs of the Federal Government furnish important byproducts in terms of scientific knowledge acquired from abroad, many areas of science and significant scientific resources in many areas of the free world are going untouched and unutilized because they do not happen to mesh into the particular military, political or other objectives which underlie the existing programs. This is especially true with respect to "basic" or "fundamental" science. By its nature, basic research frequently, in fact usually, does not relate sufficiently directly to short-run objectives as to warrant financial support under existing programs of military or economic aid. However, in the long run, the solution of most scientific problems must rest upon new knowledge about the nature of matter and of life processes. Likewise, creative scientific talent may exist in countries which do not stand high on the priority list of U.S. political and military objectives. Existing programs, with few exceptions, do not provide for the utilization or support of such talent, even indirectly. D. Certain programs and policies are not enhancing, and in some cases are undermining, U.S. leadership in international science It is fair to state that although existing programs involving or supporting international science leave many gaps as pointed out above, the United States is failing to receive recognition from scientists abroad for much of what is now being done. The following are illustrative of the manner in which foreign scientists are given the opportunity to criticize, rightly or wrongly, the posture of the United States in this field. Although reasonably adequate legislative authorization exists for support by the United States of international scientific meetings and congresses, appropriations for these purposes are often restricted in amount and straitjacketed with various limitations, so that the Government is placed in the position of pinching pennies and taking other negative actions which have the total effect of causing foreign scientists to believe that it is U.S. policy to discourage such meetings. The problems growing out of the administration of visa regulations as they pertain to foreign scientists visiting the United States are too well known to require elaboration here. While many other considerations in addition to international scientific cooperation enter into U.S. immigration and visa policies, it must be recognized that incidents arising under them receive considerable attention among foreign scientists, admittedly often out of proportion to the significance of the particular occurrence. Likewise, U.S. policies and administrative actions in the control of the "export" of unclassified scientific information may tend to have an unfavorable impact upon the attitudes of foreign scientists toward the United States. In summary, it can be said that the U.S. Government has no coordinated policy with respect to international science. Present activities and programs are oriented in the main to specific military, economic or political objectives and do not constribute effectively to U.S. leadership in international science. Neither do they result, in anywhere near an optimum degree, in the utilization of the creative scientific resources extant in friendly countries. Finally, through sins of omission and commission, U.S. prestige among scientists abroad has been allowed to deteriorate seriously. IV. EXISTING LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITIES NOT FULLY UTILIZED Several possible courses of action exist under present legislative authorization, any or all of which would have the effect of giving increased emphasis to the support and encouragement by the U.S. Government of activities in international science. A. Increase in number of scientists and fields of science under existing exchange of persons programs 1. Added emphasis could be given to the "science component" of the International Exchange Service program of the Department of State. The National Science Foundation could develop recommendations as to the substantive content of the added increments. 2. Increased emphasis could be given to the exchange of scientists under the technical assistance programs of ICA under the Department of State. Care should be exercised however to avoid warping the economic objectives which necessarily underlie this program. B. Support of foreign basic research, and in certain instances, applied research and development, where results of such research will be available to the United States 1. The National Science Foundation can entertain, and with the approval of the Department of State in the specific instance, give support to basic research proposals submitted from foreign countries. In the absence of further authorization, however, such support is given only on an "exceptional" basis. 2. ICA would have a freer hand, legislationwise, in giving such support to basic research as a part of its technical assistance program, but would face the difficulty of justifying such support in terms of a direct contribution to economic development. While no study has been made of the legal authority available to the Department of Defense for an expanded support of foreign basic research, it is likely that similar difficulties would be encountered in establishing a justifiable relationship to the military mission with the added disadvantage of placing a "military tag" on the research so sponsored. In addition, support by the military departments of basic research in foreign universities is open to misunderstanding and suspicion by foreign scientists and is not conducive toward cementing good international relations. In general, it would appear that some added support to foreign basic research could be given under existing programs but only at the risk of running counter to apparent congressional feeling on the one hand or warping program objectives on the other. 3. Much less difficulty would be encountered in supporting applied research and development abroad on an increased scale, both under existing military programs and under technical assistance programs of ICA because the relevance to assigned military or economic objectives is not nearly so hard to establish as in the case of basic research. In this connection the National Science Foundation, being oriented specifically to basic research, should not play any role, except at the specific request of other agencies. C. Increased support to efforts of other countries to improve the quantity and quality of scientific manpower 1. The obvious principal mechanism through which increased U.S. support could be given in this area without additional congressional authorization is the college contract program of ICA. Admittedly, this program is oriented to objectives in one sense broader and in another sense narrower, than scientific man |