services. The road of child and youth development is strewn with momentary endeavors that soared and fizzled because there was no strong core in the school system that carried through the possible achievements to the next students who entered the school. Today we are beset with many ideas for enhancing means of developing youth. It is unlikely that they will stand the test of time unless the schools have good guidance services.

Legislation is pending in the Congress that is designed to improve guidance services and to meet the demands for enough services. Whether or not the legislation passes, the fact is that educators must provide directions even for the normal increases that are occurring without further stimulation. Let us consider, therefore, the ways to meet the demands.

Quantity

The commonest source of personnel for counseling is the teaching faculty. The requirement of teaching experience for certification for counseling is likely to make the teaching background a usual pattern. This will mean, then, that the largest pool of persons for counseling in the immediate years is present today on faculties.

The second source is, of course, graduate students who have entered advanced education directly from the baccalaureate degree. This group will not relieve the counseling shortage immediately except in small measure. In most States they will have to enter teaching before becoming full-time counselors. The most that they can do in counseling is a limited amount, 1 or 2 periods per day, that will not detract from obtaining credit for a year of teaching experience. This group, then, for relieving the current shortage of counselors is less significant than the group that already has met the requirement of teaching experience. Meeting the quantitative demand depends also upon the ability of universities to expand their facilities for counselor education. From one university recently has come a request for help in endeavoring to convince the university adminis tration that enlarged facilities are needed for training counselors. Few universities, if any, are able to meet the demand for counselors to fill positions. They know that the demand is there; they are not producing enough counselors. They cannot until their facilities are expanded. In order to produce enough competent counselors, it is necessary to enlarge the source and also to enlarge the facilities for training new personnel.

One of the current pressing needs is to endeavor to establish means by which the largest source of counselors, teachers, can be trained more rapidly and effectively through expanded graduate facilities.

Quality

This leads to the question of quality. This paper has expounded the viewpoint that counselors who enter the work today usually meet a qualification of personality. Therefore, quality revolves into education.

The educational stipulation for counselors at the master's level is generally approximately 20 hours of courses directly in counseling and the remainder in related areas. One of the most important parts of the guidance training is the practicum and interne work in counseling. This shows the grave necessity for training. It is unfortunate to endeavor to develop counselors by a do-it-yourself technique. There is no substitute for the supervised practical work.

Improvement of quality through education must recognize two routes: shortterm institutes and longer term training. In meeting the demands for quality, graduate education institutions will have to provide better not only for their regular programs but also for shorter term institutes that will improve more rapidly those who already are counseling without adequate training.

CONCLUSION

The American Personnel and Guidance Association has issued a policy state ment on human resources. A set of principles is expounded, as follows: 1. Freedom to choose one's lifework is basic to our democratic society and is necessary to the fullest possible growth of individuals.

2. In order for freedom to flourish

(a) Students must learn, at successive levels of education, progressively more about themselves—their interests, talents, values, and abilities-through assistance in interpreting test results, educational experiences, and personality potentials.

(b) Students must learn about the large, complex, and changing world of career opportunities.

(c) Students should be motivated to explore the best outlets for their talents. (d) Students must be instilled with a sense of responsibility, and a feeling of stewardship in the use of their talents.

3. Professional counselors must be available in elementary and secondary schools and colleges where, in cooperation with teachers, they can help students understand their potentialities, the educational choices to train those potentialities, and the career possibilities especially suitable for particular potentialities. There, also, skillful counselors can encourage these students to try out their potentialities.

4. The appalling waste of human resources can be reduced by providing guidance and personnel facilities within our educational institutions that make it possible for young people to plan their careers and the education necessary to achieve their careers.

5. Counselors have a profound obligation to individuals and to our society to assist students in making their career and educational plans in terms of their potentialities, as well as in terms of the uses to which these potentialities can be placed in our society. Students whose future contributions and prospects of self-fulfillment can be greater in fields other than science and technology should be encouraged to develop in these fields.

6. In order to make the fullest use of scholarships and testing programs, it is necessary to have an adequate staff of professional counselors, assuring every student the opportunity to plan his future wisely. Without suitable counseling assistance, testing, scholarships, and other aids cannot be fully effective. Talents can be identified by means of counseling and testing, and through observation of students by teachers. What happens to those talents-whether or not they are ever developed-depends largely upon the counseling functions in our schools and colleges.

This suggests the grave responsibility resting upon counselors. The Nation has a solemn obligation to provide the number of counselors needed and in the quality that is essential to enable children and youth to develop as they may,

[From Foreign Affairs, vol. 32, April 1954]

THE PROGRESS OF SOVIET SCIENCE.

By John Turkevich, professor of chemistry, Princeton University

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century science and technology have been playing a greater and greater role in shaping the lives of individuals, communities and nations. This has been true particularly in the West, where economic, social, and political institutions and customs have been largely transformed by technological advances based on scientific accomplishments. Economic, social, political, and spiritual values all still play their independent parts in creating the pattern of modern civilization. Nevertheless, running through nearly all of the complex mechanism of modern living are strands of technological advance which run back to the knot of some major scientific discovery. It is only reasonable to assume that this process will continue. If so, our ways of living and the direction of world affairs 10 to 20 years from now will be materially affected by what is being done or not done in the industrial development and engineering laboratories at the present time. Similarly the shapes of things a half century hence will depend a great deal on what is going on in the pure science research laboratories now.

All these truisms about science and technology in the West apply to the Soviet Union. Perhaps they have not applied for quite so long a time, but there can be no doubt that the powerful Soviet state confronting the world today is based on substantial accomplishments by Soviet scientists and educators as well as on effective performance by Soviet engineers and technologists. Beyond this, it is clear that the future balance of world power will depend to a considerable extent on Soviet success or lack of success in the international race for scientific knowledge and technological achievement. Knowledge of the main features of Soviet science-its traditions, ideology, organization and personnelmay therefore enable us to assess some of the accomplishments of Soviet science and its hopes for the future.

Science was introduced into Russia by Peter the Great. Impressed by scientific demonstrations on his Western travels, he brought back to St. Petersburg a number of scientific curios and sketched a plan for the organization of science. In 1725, a year after his death, his successor, Catherine I. founded the Imperial Academy of Sciences. It consisted of a group of scholars, a scientific museum

and a secondary school. The scientists themselves had to be imported from the West, since Russia at that time had none. They were well chosen; among them were the Swiss, Leonhardt Euler, one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, and several of the Bernouilli family, internationally known scientists, along with others of less illustrious name. When a sufficient group of native scholars had been trained, a reaction against their foreign teachers developed under the leadership of the genius of eighteenth century Russian culture, Michael Lomonosov.

The development of science in the latter half of the eighteenth century and in the nineteenth century did not produce a large number of outstanding Russian scholars. Yet the names of Mendelyev (the discoverer of the periodic system of chemical elements), Lobachevski (the founder of the non-Euclidean geometry), and Pavlov (the formulator of the concept of the conditioned reflex) are now part of the world's cultural heritage. There were others, such as the physicists Jacobi, Lenz and Lebedev; the mathematicians Kovalevski, Chebyshev, Liapunov, Markov; the chemists, Markovnikov, Butlerov, Menshutkin, Beilstein, Chugaev, Reformatski; the biologists Kovalevski, Vinogradski, Pavlovski, Mechnikov, and Bekhterev, whose discoveries helped in the development of some aspect of science and whose work is valued by specialists in their fields.

The many Russian inventors of that period whose "discoveries" recently have been publicized by the Soviet Government were mostly so localized that they not only did not affect the development of Russian technology but were not heard of in the West. The language barrier, ever present in the relationship of Russia with the West, helped to keep the latter ignorant of the work of these Russians. The Soviet régime, however, while doing its best to keep the cultural barrier between East and West, is very sensitive about the reputations of these "inventors" and points with exaggerated national pride to such discoveries as that of the steam engine by Palzunov, the electric are for illumination by Yablochkov, the incandescent lamp by Lodigin, and the radio by Popov.

Although these men had little influence on Russian scientific development, the twentieth century opened with a good deal of promise. There was a respectable though small Imperial Academy of Sciences, and several active universities (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev and Kazan) where scientific teaching and research were going on in a manner not inferior to that of comparable Western institutions. A small group of highly trained scientists and engineers had supplemented their excellent Russian education with studies at Western centers. Finally, Russian science was being strengthened by the availability of an unusual source of personnel-the Russian intelligentsia, that group of people socially uprooted by the economic changes taking place in nineteenth-century Russia whose general education and culture was as advanced as any in the West.

World War I, the Revolution and the havoc of the Civil War that followed dealt a telling blow to the intelligentsia. Persecuted by the rising proletariat, many lost their lives in the cataclysm of 1917-23, and others left Russia to enrich the culture of many other lands. Science, which had been tolerated though not encouraged by the Imperial Government in its later days, gradually assumed an important rôle in the development of the Soviet state. The small, staid Imperial Academy of Sciences became the active, expanded U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences. The four or five prominent universities spawned 33 new ones scattered across the expanse of the Soviet Union. It was decided to give a large number of people a scientific and technical education, and the small group of the intelligentsia that had survived persecution and avoided exile served as leaven for the creation of a new class of scientists.

Science comes into the Marxist scheme of things in a number of ways. In the Marxist thinking, the control of the state cannot be separated from the control of economic production. Technological advances change the economie balance and introduce new methods of production. Since scientists and engineers are responsible for technological advances, their activities must also be controlled. Several methods were tried by the Communist Party. The victorious proletarian regime tried immediately after the Revolution to make the scientist its slave, hoping in this way to guarantee its control of production and conse quently continue to control the state. The attempt to make slaves out of the scientist and the engineer failed, in the Marxist view, because of the unreliable bourgeois background and Western leanings of the people in these professions. It was accordingly attempted to create a group of scientists from the proletariat.

Although this was not entirely successful, Soviet scientists and engineers, together with other members of the Soviet intelligentsia, had by the time of the Second World War attained a position of prestige and economic advantage in Soviet society reflected in the common Soviet claim that the three pillars of the Soviet state are the workers, the peasants and the intelligentsia.

Marxism also affects science in a more subtle way through its philosophy of science. To its adherents, Marxism is a total philosophy and as such includes a philosophy of science. Marx, Engels, and Lenin thought that they themselves were scientists and laid down rules to govern scientific thought which were embodied in the philosophy of dialectic materialism. The philosophy of dialectic materialism was not only formulated by people who did not know modern science, but is also full of contradictions. It is a materialistic philosophy emphasizing the overriding importance of the material aspect of nature. On the other hand, in its dialectic approach (through what the Marxists call "the three subsidiary laws of change," "negation of the negative," and the "transition of the quantitative to the qualitative change") it emphasizes idealism. For more than a decade after the Revolution Soviet philosophers argued as to the proper balance between these two components of their philosophy. Their conclusions were often decisively influenced by the dictates of party leaders, and as a result the chair of Marxist philosophy at the universities became a perilous one to hold. Eventually, in the Stalinist society, the Marxist dialectic materialism was replaced by a Stalinist philosophy of science whose main tenets were: do not be an idealist; make your research useful for building up the new Soviet state; criticize others and yourself; do not be subservient to the West; and honor your Russian scientific forebears.

Through its party functionaries, its Marxist professors of philosophy and its security officers, the state keeps a close watch at all educational and scientific institutions for possible deviations among staff members. Scientists who have had close personal ties with Western scientists are particularly suspected. Those whose work has been translated into English are invariably scrutinized for idealism, subservience to the West, and neglect of Russian scientific forebears. This activity culminated in the famous genetics controversy and in the reexamination of the various branches of science which followed.

Science in the Soviet Union is highly organized and well financed by the government. The main administrative agency is the U. S. S. R. Academy of Sciences, which occupies the key position in the organization, development, planning, execution and financing of science in Russia. This self-perpetuating organization is composed of 150 full members and 250 associate members, drawn not only from all fields of natural sciences but also from other fields such as philosophy, history, economics and law. The Academy is divided into the following sections: physics-mathematics, chemistry, geology, biology, engineering (technical sciences), literature, language, economics and law, history and philosophy. Election to membership is preceded by wide publicity. At the election last October, the first in seven years, 199 new academicians and associate members were inducted. This marked a significant stage in the life of the Soviet science, indicating that a new generation of Russian scientists has become available to establish firm control over the Academy, which for some time contained a relatively high percentage of scholars trained under the Imperial régime.

The president of the Academy is a man of high prestige in the Soviet Union, elected by the Academy for a five-year term and holding a rank equivalent to that of a major cabinet minister. His portrait often appears in newspapers and magazines: and his prominence is attested by his inclusion in the group of the 25 Soviet leaders who gather on Lenin's tomb for the celebration of the October Revolution. The present president of the Academy is Alexander Nikolaevich Nesmeyanov, a member of the Communist Party, born in 1899, who studied organic chemistry under the dean of Russian organic chemists, Zelinski, at the Moscow State University. His scientific work has been in the field of organo-metallic compounds, of which tetraethyl lead used in gasoline is a good example. He was elected president of the Academy in 1951 on the death of Sergei Ivanovich Vavilov. Since 1947 Nesmeyanov has been chairman of the Stalin Prize Committee, Chancellor of the Moscow State University, VicePresident of the Supreme Soviet of the R. S. F. R., member of the Moscow City Soviet and of the World Peace Committee.

The Academy carries on its research work in a number of institutes, most of them centered in Moscow and Leningrad. The institutes, whose number has been relatively stabilized in recent years at about 60, employed about 6,000

scientific workers in 1949, and about 14,000 workers in administrative and service functions. A representative list of the names of the institutes gives an indication of their activities: The Institute of Physical Problems, the Institute of Physical Chemisry, the Geophysical Institute, the Radium Institute, the Institute of Genetics. These institutes are the elite guard of Soviet science, well equipped with apparatus, both imported and of Soviet manufacture, and attracting the best-trained Soviet scientists. The findings of a large amount of creditable scientific work are published by them, and these results are available outside the Iron Curtain. Research is also carried on at the major universities of Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, etc., and there is close liaison between the universities and the institutes. There is also a very determined effort to organize scientific research in the outlying sections of the Soviet Union through branches of the Academy of Sciences and academies maintained by the various Soviet republics. The number of sophisticated scientific articles coming from centers far removed from Moscow testifies to the widespread distribution of highlytrained scientific personnel. In addition to these research institutes and the laboratories of the universities, research organizations are set up and controlled by the Ministries of Defense, Heavy Industries, etc. The Academy of Science exerts a powerful influence over the whole administration of Soviet science: it poses the key problems to institutes, approves their programs, appropriates the financial support, reviews each year the accomplishments of the various projects. and publicly reprimands institutes and individual academicians for failures in assigned work.

The Soviet scientist enjoys marked economic advantage over his fellow citizen. Judged by Soviet standards he is very well paid. If he is elected to membership in the Academy, he receives a monthly bonus, a good flat in Moscow, a fine country home in the Academy village, an automobile and other privileges. Scientists doing research at the universities and the institutes receive a higher financial compensation than those in industry. Every attempt is made to attract the best young men and women into scientific and technological work.

Exchange of scientific information has long been recognized as a necessary mechanism for the rapid development of scientific knowledge. This is admitted. at least to a limited degree, by the Soviet Government. The Academy publishes about 30 journals. Their top scientific journal is the Dokladi (Reports) of the U. S. S. R. Academy of Science and its four-page articles reporting original investigations indicate the broad scope of Soviet scientific work: in 1952 it contained 250 articles on physics alone. The other journals report in more detail the completed investigations as well as the proceedings of the numerous scientific conferences held in the Soviet Union. Most of these journals are regularly received in the United States. In September 1947, the Soviet Union discontinued the practice of publishing scientific work in other languages than Russian. Few Western scientists know the Russian language, and attempts to make results of Russian scientific work available to them have not been too successful.

The Soviet scientists are, on the other hand, very well informed about what is happening outside the Iron Curtain. Almost all important scientific books are translated into Russian and are given a wide distribution at low cost. At least four journals are devoted to the presentation of new developments in the various branches of science and these report fully and promptly on Western scientific results; anyone who reads them gets a very good picture of the status of Western science.

The Soviet Government lays great stress on education, especially technical and scientific education. Compulsory free education in the so-called seven year school is given to all children from the ages of seven to 14. In all the larger population centers there are ten-year schools that complete the secondary education at age 17. There is a slight fee for the three additional years of secondary education. An entrance examination in several school subjects, Russian, and a foreign language must be passed for admission to a university, of which there are 33, in addition to the 880 institutes of higher education. In 1951 there were about 6,000 professors in the Soviet Union, 25.000 assistant professors and about 1,200,00 students. The students in the universities are subsidized by the government on a merit basis. There has been considerable excitement in the Soviet press during the last several years about the construction of the new Moscow University in the Lenin hills just outside Moscow-a mammoth skyscraper, 850 feet high and more than a mile and a half in circumference. The central section, 37 stories high, will house the departments of geology, geography and mathematics, and a library of more than 1.000.000 volumes. Four 19-story wings will contain apartments for the staff and student dormitories, and other