LLITERATES are the ciphers in our economy. Neither the armed forces nor industry wants them. Most of them are absorbed by agriculture and a few migratory and seasonal occupations. Wherever they are, their effectiveness is limited. In most statistics an illiterate counts as much as a college graduate, but in practical situations often he is a place-holder of little value. However, given education an illiterate can become an asset instead of a liability. Any manpower advantage which we may have over the Communistic hordes lies largely in the superior competence of our people-competence due to education.

We talk about the hundreds of millions of illiterates in the underprivileged areas of the world. We have millions of them here. Census data for 1950 on illiteracy and educational level have not been released. Among civilians, however, an estimated 2,838,000 admit that they cannot read and write. In addition, an unknown number literate in some other language cannot read and write English. Over 8,000,000 adults have not gone beyond the fourth grade-a widely accepted standard for functional literacy.

If 10, 1,000, or 1,000,000 illiterate adults should be taught the skills of reading and writing and other basic learning tools, they could more nearly carry their proper share of the load during these times. They could fill in the ranks of the armed forces and industry. They could fill many positions now being occupied by young people who could go on to college or by other adults who could be upgraded. A man is a man only if he can do a man's work, and in our kind of world, illiteracy keeps one from being a complete man.

1 Adult Literacy Education in the United States. Federal Security Agency. Office of Education Circular No. 324, No. vember 1950.

THIS ARTICLE, second in a series of four on illiteracy, was prepared at the suggestion of the Office of Education Committee on Educational Rejectees of which Dr. Kempfer is a member. The first article, "Illiteracy and Manpower Mobilization," appeared in the June issue of SCHOOL LIFE. The third and fourth articles, in forthcoming issues, will deal with local community responsibility and with National and Federal responsibility in literacy education.

We need the manpower! The low birth rate of the 1930's is catching up with us. (See table.) We are reaching the bottom of the curve of young manpower. We are getting relatively few replacements. Next year we will have fewer 18-year-olds than we have had for decades. During the years immediately ahead fewer young people will turn 21 than at any similar period in our generation. This means that fewer young men and women are available for the armed forces, industry, and leadership. In light of this fact, it is highly important that every person-young or old-develop his full potential and add it to the national strength.2

A State Responsibility

In our democracy every State has a fundamental responsibility for educating its citizens-all of them-regardless of age. Legal responsibility for the education of children has long been accepted. However, people are citizens at all ages. Only after 21 (18 in Georgia) do they exercise their full citizenship responsibilities. If a State has illiterate adults, it has an inescapable moral responsibility for educating them into competent and functioning citizens. Literacy

2 See Ambrose Caliver's article, "Illiteracy and Manpower Mobilization," School Life, 33: 131-133, June 1951.

and the other knowledge and skills that build upon it are basic to effective citizenship and competent participation in our economic life. In this real sense, schools create manpower.

Practical Steps

States can take several practical steps to provide the effective manpower. Uniform prescriptions cannot be written, because circumstances differ so widely. Each State can study its own illiteracy problem and develop a comprehensive State plan. Here are some suggestions which should be considered.

1. Provide adequate elementary schools and enforce the compulsory attendance laws. State laws require a minimum of 8 to 12 years of school attendance. In spite of this an estimated 125,000 illiterate young people are moving past the compulsory attendance ages each year. Apparently either there are too few schools, inadequate schools, or all children are not required to attend. Building shortages and teacher shortages are taking their toll. The Census has estimated that approximately 225,000 children between the ages of 7 and 13 were not in school last October. A similar number of 14- and 15-year-olds was not enrolled.

A part of the cause lies in indifference among some State and local officials in enforcement of compulsory attendance laws. The cumulative effects of inadequate law enforcement, buildings, and teachers began to pinch in World War II in certain areas. This was especially noticeable where minority groups were given differential treatment. In Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Iowa considerably less than 1 percent of the Selective Service registrants were rejected as unable to pass the required tests of mental development administered from August 1944, through September 1945.

is not to be found in innate limitations but rather in the social surroundings in which these men developed." 3 The only tenable conclusion is that the provision of adequate elementary schools and the strict enforcement of compulsory attendance laws is the best way to stop illiteracy at its source.

2. Finance an adequate adult education program, including literacy instruction.Interest in adult education is rising. Illiterate adults will go to school if given the proper encouragement. A Time magazine story on July 30 pointed out their eagerness and ability to learn. Tens of thousands of them are attending day and evening classes every week where they have the opportunity. Adults learn literacy skills much faster than children. It is demonstrated every year in New York City that the typical illiterate adult in 800 clock hours of instruction can acquire the equivalent of an eighth-grade education-an accomplishment which children are expected to achieve in 7,200 hours. Prevalence of Illiteracy

The simple fact is that literacy instruction is not available to most adults who need it. Nearly three times as many school districts offer high-school courses to adults as offer literacy instruction. If a person does not become literate as a child or youth, he seldom has the opportunity to do so as an adult. Even so, the typical American community of 500 people has enough illiterate adults in it to form a class. communities illiterates abound. areas a third of the adult population has not gone beyond the fourth grade. As 1950 census data become available, States can identify these spots and help them plan adult education programs.

State financial aid can help mightily. Usually States which provide aid to general adult education have the most highly developed programs. Five-sixths of all literacy classes not supported by Veterans' Administration funds are in States which grant aid to local districts for adult education. Literacy education costs money, but when done by civilian schools, it is the least expensive kind of instruction. A thousand dollars spent in teaching undereducated adults may help many persons develop through the marginal zone into effective human beings. A civilian dollar spent in literacy education does the work of 6 to 8 dollars required by the Armed Forces in giving equivalent instruction. Furthermore the expenditure of civilian

Estimates of the total population of the United States, including Armed Forces overseas, 21 years of age, July 1, 1930, to 1951, and projections, July 1, 1951, to 1960 1

Year

1930_

1931.

1932. 1933 1934_

1935__ 1936_ 1937

1938_.

1939

1940_.

1941.

1942__

1943_. 1944

1945. 1946

1947

1948__

1949_.

1950_

1951.

1

Estimate 2,220,000 2,231,000 2,245, 000 2,261,000

2,278,000

2,289,000

2,294, 000

2,297,000

2,300,000

2,316,000

2, 351,000 2,394, 000 2, 432, 000 2,465, 000 2,472,000 2, 438, 000 2, 416, 000

2, 402,000 2,386,000 2,354, 000 2, 302, 000 2,257, 000

2

Medium Projection 2,232,000 2, 161,000 2,090,000 2,067,000 2, 161,000 2, 207, 000 2,209,000 2,301, 000 2,344,000

2 Base date of the projections is July 1, 1949. Projections are consistent with those published in Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 43,

page 7.

money would release the Armed Forces from carrying civilian responsibility.

3. Provide adequate State supervision.That we have difficulty in providing qualified specialists in literacy education for Point IV missions is evidence that we have lost much of our technical competence in this field. Without neglecting our responsibility for technical assistance abroad, we need to build up our own professional competence in literacy education for adults. A recent Office of Education project financed by Carnegie funds made a start in this direction.*

Community Needs

The leadership responsibility of State education departments requires that competent consultant help be given to local communities. Communities need help in organizing courses, identifying specific needs, building community awareness of educa tional need, training teachers, developing instructional materials, and in evaluating results. Setting up materials centers, establishing area instructional centers, arranging for itinerant teachers, planning area supervision, and training local literacy workers progresses best under State leadership.

4. Put on a campaign to eradicate illiteracy especially among young adults.— Literacy campaigns have made significant inroads on illiteracy in many undeveloped countries. We might profit by their use in our undereducated areas. While the compulsory features might apply only to young adults, their target should be illiteracy at all ages. Such campaigns could include a variety of elements such as:

Stimulating the formation of local classes. Developing cooperation between State education departments and institutions of higher education in the training of teachers of adults. Working out of cooperative arrangements with local draft boards for the identification of undereducated registrants.

Encouraging employment agencies, employers, personnel managers, social agencies, churches, and other community agencies to identify illiterate adults and encourage them to seek instruction.

Building attitudes in the community which make it easy for the undereducated to attend classes. Helping local communities with their own literacy campaigns.

A Federal proposal to require a literacy test of all young people of a given age for

"Project for Adult Education of Negroes," School Life, 31: 4-5, November 1948.

(Continued on page 15)