Education under Communism.-Less than 30 per cent of all children of school age are receiving instruction. The system, based on class, contributes nothing to pedagogy. Many teachers belong to the former régime, so that children are getting a mixed diet of incompatible elements.-Leo Pasvolsky, Educational Review, LXII (November, 1921), 324–31. (VII, 1.) E. B.

The Iron Man in International Politics.-Expansion of national industry and international trade and the dominance of weak peoples by strong industrial peoples were causes of the war. The use of automatic machinery is spreading to all races. At first its introduction to new countries will involve class struggles, then restriction of the white man's trade. The final result may be another world-struggle, unless governments set up some kind of moral control over machine use.-Arthur Pound, Atlantic Monthly, CXXVIII (November, 1921), 611-18. (VII, 1.) G. B. J.

Lutte pour la vie et entr'aide sociale.-Social Darwinism: On the basis of Darwin's theory of the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest, it is maintained that competition among men leads to the survival of the fitter, superior type. This "superior" type, however, is often of a selfish, unscrupulous, brutal sort. Social institutions also often favor the survival of the less capable. These specious theories of competition have had some demoralizing effects, of which the Great War is an example. Competition and co-operation: It is true that conflict is one of the inevitable conditions of life. There is a natural tendency toward inequality. Competition, however, does not exclude co-operation. Sympathy, social consciousness, and moral duty have increasingly modified the struggle for existence. Wars have become less frequent and less cruel. Extension of national bounds has made for peace. Perfection of means of communication, extension of markets, and specialization have also increased co-operation. The rational principle of life is to live for one's self and for others. Competition and control: Economic competition is necessary but should be regulated. Equality of power is essential to beneficial working of competition. This may be achieved by a sane distribution of capital, government operation or control of monopolistic enterprises, more extensive education, collective bargaining, and a sufficiently extended market. A certain amount of government interference is necessary.-L. Dechesne, Revue de L'Institut de Sociologie, II (November,_1921), 355-85. (VII, 1.) M. S. E.

The Iron Man and Wages.-On the side of production, the use of automatic machinery is decreasing the demand for manual skill and is leveling wages, not only of operatives but of office workers. Education is oversupplying the need for skilled tool-workers and executives, thus leveling wages still more. On the side of consumption, sales competition is tending to strengthen the leveling process. Such a process may involve good or evil, depending upon our control of it.-Arthur Pound, Atlantic Monthly, CXXVIII (December, 1921), 787-94. (VII, 1.) G. B. J.

The Leadership of the Ministry in Industrial and Social Life.-The moral and social problems in modern industrial society are foremost in men's thinking. New emotional attitudes are being created. How are these to be related to religious ideals? Social leadership and otherworldliness: 1. If the church exists solely to save the individual for a future life, no social leadership is engendered. 2. If it be held that the regeneration of individuals will automatically lead to social reforms, it becomes evident that mere good will is not sufficient without detailed knowledge. Moreover a person's attitudes are largely determined by the stimulus of his environment. 3. If the minister confines himself to establishing general truths, avoiding controversial questions, he will inevitably become a defender of conventional ideals, and will furnish no insight into new problems. The alternative is a really accurate knowledge of facts and forces in the social struggle. The minister today should have "the best training in the social sciences our universities can provide."-Wilfred C. Keirstead, Journal of Religion, II (January, 1922), 44-57. (VII, 2.) D. C. F.

The Contribution of the Open Forum to Democracy in Religion.-The open forum is a direct result of the eagerness of the church to "reach the masses." Three of the pioneer organizations of the forum-at Cooper Union, in the Church of the Ascension, and at Ford Hall-were all inspired by the ideals of the church. The

purpose of the church is to give an opportunity for open discussion, where objections may be raised as well as positions defined. Radicalism and the church forum: The result has been to jar church people out of their complacency, to modify unintelligent radicalism, and to stimulate thinking and reading. Dogmatism is immediately checked. No ecclesiastical or other conditions are prescribed for participation in the discussion. Those who have been alienated from the church find that religion, like other human interests, is progressing and is dealing with real issues. A wider sense of brotherhood is developed. A new community interest is aroused. Brief descriptions of typical experiments reinforce the foregoing points.-George W. Coleman, Journal of Religion, II (January, 1922), 1-15. (VII, 2.)

D. C. F.

The Educative Nature of the Social Process.-A tool or an institution represents a social achievement to meet a social need, but its value is determined only when men are taught to use it or appreciate its service. When operative it is a social product-a product of invention and learning. In primitive as well as in modern civilized life the process of social adjustment and culture development in humanity has always been essentially a learning process. The educative process a form of control: The young have always been required to acquire the social technique of their group by educative methods. In the modern school we see this process of transmission developing into a systematized, rationalized, and deliberate institution. Its natural function, then, is to prepare the young for full and normal citizenship in their respective social order, simple or complex. In modern society the school curriculum should be as broad as civilization itself. An educative method for a democratic society: Successful democracy depends upon enlightened and rational public opinion. This cannot be created without diffused knowledge of concrete social matters, hence the need that these be made central in the school curricula all the way up. Leadership in a democracy: Leadership is necessary for achievement in any human society. The function of a leader in a democracy is to educate and inspire, to teach and lead rather than command. The teacher is the most important leader and the colleges and universities must aim more and more to turn out capable teacher-leaders. -Charles A. Ellwood, Teachers College Record (May, 1921), 226–33. (VII, 2.)

C. A. W.

The Employment of Children in the Motion-Picture Industry.-There are about 1,500 children employed in motion-picture production in Los Angeles. A study of 225 cases showed that such employment often had a demoralizing effect upon the school work and moral status of the children. This is probably due to (1) the nature of the adult environment in which the child is placed; (2) the make-believe or unreal atmosphere of the studio; and (3) lack of consideration of characteristics that are worth while, since the star is often the one who can best play the fool.-Benjamin S. Weiss, Journal of Applied Sociology, VI (December, 1921), 11-18. (VII, 2.)

G. B. J.

The Youth Movement in Germany.-German youth has revolted against the restrictions placed on its natural development by militarism, church, school, and modern industry. The movement includes organized groups of boys and girls under twenty-five of widely differing ideas and programs. Anti-intellectualism and antimilitarism: Interest in outdoor sports; revival of folk songs and dances; dissatisfaction with overintellectualization, militarism, traditional theology, and conservative sex conventions; emphasis on the idea of personal development and community service. The political and social ambitions of the various groups differ widely, and the movement will not show startling results soon. It is the next generation of German statesmen that will feel the spirit and influence of the youth movement.-Bruno Lasker, Survey, XLVII (December 31, 1921), 487–501. (VII, 4.) G. B. J.

Emotion, Blame, and the Scientific Attitude in Relation to Radical Leadership and Method. Radicalism is the result of a maladjustment between individual and environment. Balked desire paves the way to radicalism. There are two ways of getting desires: (1) through conflict, and (2) through constructive co-operation. Anger may lead to violence without removing the obstruction. Leadership: Differences in temperament, training, and discipline distinguish radical leaders from followRadicalism as a social attitude involves persistent desire for thoroughgoing innovation. Blame has no place in diagnosis, but may be used as a device or goad to control

ers.

men. Impersonal causes and technological processes are the basis for scientific study of radicalism.-A. B. Wolfe, International Journal of Ethics, XXXII (January, 1922), 142-59. (VII, 4.) E. B.

VIII.

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY:

PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION

A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of 399 Inmates of the Indiana Reformatory and 653 Men of the United States Army.-Intelligence tests and crime: Psychological testing in the army indicated that the mental age of the average male adult is between thirteen and fourteen years, which is from one to two years below standards generally held by clinical examiners. One of the practical results of too high standards has been the overestimation of the amount of defective intelligence in reformatory and prison populations. White and colored criminals: In the reformatory group, crimes against property are greatly in excess of crimes against person or public order. Comparison of the 299 whites with the 100 negroes shows that the former committed relatively fewer crimes against person, but more against property and public order. In each group approximately three-quarters of the whole number of individual crimes fall under the headings: burglarly, second degree, robbery, escaping state penal farm, forgery, and grand and petty larceny.-Calvin P. Stone, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, XII (August, 1921), 238-57. (VIII, 1.) D. C. F.

An Industrial Institute Survey.-The results of the tests made of the 38 boys in the Wyoming Industrial Institute are as follows: (1) Practically two-thirds of the inmates are below average intelligence, according to the army ratings. (2) Of the remaining one-third, 38 per cent, although or the average mental level or above, are suffering from abnormalities of function so marked that they could not be designated. (3) Fifteen per cent are definitely feeble-minded, 21 per cent borderline mentalities, most of whom are already definitely launched on an anti-social career. Psychopathic personalities and intelligence: (4) Neurotic constitutions and psychopathic personalities appear at all levels, but are much more frequent among the brighter boys. (5) Only 10.4 per cent, in the estimation of the superintendent and the judgment of the examiners, are really promising material for reformation.-Winifred Richmond, Journal of Delinquency, VI (September, 1921), 473–86. (VIII, 1.) D. C. F.

The Segregable Delinquent.-The confirmed criminal defective should be committed to a special institution set apart for that purpose rather than sending him to prison. It is not only bad business practice, but also a miscarriage of justice to the delinquent himself to do otherwise. Morons as potential criminals: From the very nature of things all morons are potential criminals unless some kind friend lends them a helping hand. It is the neglected defective that generally turns out to be a criminal later. Reformation, however, must begin at home in the hands of parents and grandparents.—John R. Harding, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, XII (August, 1921), 267-74. (VIII, 1.) D. C. F.

Some Prison Facts.-A survey of some seventy penal institutions shows that flogging, solitary confinement, dark cells, and starvation diet are still used in the prisons in the United States. Religious services are dry and uninspiring. In some cases the men are worked hard, in others they serve their terms in the "idle house." Prison reform: In rare instances are there any attempts at real reform, such as education, self-government, and pay for labor. In general, wardens seem to be unaffected by reform ideas, each official having his own pet theory of handling prisoners. Frank Tannenbaum, Atlantic Monthly, CXXVIII (November, 1921), 577-88. (VIII, 1.) G. B. J.

A Study of Delinquency among School Girls.-The writer, while employed as an attendance officer in the Department of Compulsory Education and Child Welfare of the Los Angeles city schools, handled about 1,500 delinquent girl cases, analyzing 300 of these cases. Five main causes of delinquency: (1) Broken and unsettled homes; (2) lack of parental control; (3) poverty; (4) wealth; (5) undesirable influences outside the home.-Rosalie Fowler, Journal of Applied Sociology, VI (December, 1921), 25-28, and (February, 1922), 14–20. (VIII, 1.) G. B. J.

Adventures in Stupidity: A Partial Analysis of the Intellectual Inferiority of a College Student.-Examination of a college student for mental deficiency ranked him

at twelve years and five months on the Stanford-Binet test; thirteen years on the Yerkes-Bridges; about thirteen on the Yerkes-Rossy; twelve to thirteen on the army test; and much the same on the Trabue, Whipple, Otis, Terman, Kent-Rosanoff, and other tests. He read newspapers and several magazines, and could remember a few children's books. He had never had any persisting hobbies. Psychology of stupidity: This student is scarcely less dull than the average man. His stupidity consists not in sensory, perceptual, or sensorimotor processes, but in weakness of memory, constructive imagination, detection of absurdity, combinative ability, comprehension, and powers of generalization. Bearing on vocational outlook: He is now clerking in a store. He will never be able to manage a business or master a profession; he may become an average citizen, but will not be elected to office nor serve his community greatly.-Lewis M. Terman, Scientific Monthly, XIV (January, 1922), 24–40. (VIII, 2.) E. B.

The Mortality of Foreign Race Stocks. A Contribution to the Quantitative Study of the Vigor of the Racial Elements in the Population of the United States.— Our high mortality after the age of forty-five, characteristic of American, has no counterpart in England, Germany, or Scandinavian countries having comparable data. Variability of races in natural vigor: The several races making up the foreign-born population of New York are variable as to their natural vigor as measured by their mortality rates or by life tables. Except for the Russians (chiefly Jews), expectation of life for the foreign-born is less than for natives of native parentage. Russians have the best expectation, followed in order by Italians, English, Scotch and Welsh, German, and Irish. Mortality of racial groups in New York: Except for Russians and Italians, mortality is higher among these races in New York state than in their native country. This condition may be due to failure to adapt easily to the new environment, to the poorer quality of the immigrants as compared with those remaining at home, or to a combination of both factors.-Louis I. Dublin, Scientific Monthly, XIV (January, 1922), 94-104. (VIII, 2.)

E. B.

Eugenics and the Uneducated.-We must eliminate the endeavor to foster one racial stock as superior. Positive eugenics must be put aside. Compulsory eugenics by law has no place on the program, neither does action on the environment (euthenics). Eugenics and public opinion: At present public opinion cannot be trusted to foster eugenic selection of mates. Physique, ability, and character are essential for "fitness" but these are not always properly correlated in the individual, and they involve problems which we must slowly learn to solve intelligently. Birth control essential for eugenics: In its intelligent use lies the future welfare of the race.-Havelock Ellis, Forum, LXVII (January, 1922), I-II. (VIII, 2.) G. B. J.

Birth Control.-The first American Conference for Birth Control met in November. Its aims are: (1) amendment of anti-birth-control legislation; (2) establishment of birth-control clinics; (3) encouragement of discussion of race and population problems. Arthur Gleason, Survey, XLVII (October 22, 1921), 112–14. ̄ (VIII, 2.)

G. B. J.

The Family Extra-Wage in France. In an effort to encourage larger families and to promote the national welfare, employers have agreed to make distinctions in wage scales according to the size of the employee's family. (1) 200 francs at the birth of a child; (2) 100 francs a month until child is one year old; (3) 3 francs a day for each child under fourteen.-Charles Cestre, Survey, XLVII (November 12, 1921), 239-40. (VIII, 2.) G. B. J.

IX. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

Sociology as a Special Science.-Sociology as a special science: In spite of much controversy and opposition, sociology is established as an independent science in Germany. Sociology is not a general but a special science to investigate the forms of human relations. Sociology and the philosophy of history: The overeagerness of the latter to interpret facts and its inclination to speculation and metaphysics is the opposite of the empirical and exact sociology. Sociology and allied sciences: A teacher of sociology should be well acquainted with philosophy, economics, biology, and

anthropology. The determination of the place of sociology in the system of sciences has led to bitter controversy in Germany; but in spite of these scientific quarrels, this science is already bearing fruit. Form and content of social forms: Facts of economics, philology, individual psychology, and biology should be more liberally included in sociology than it appears prima facie necessary. Analysis and comparison: Analysis brings us nearer to man as such and liberates us from speculation and fanciful constructions which belong in the sphere of poetry. In sociological form analysis, comparison is the main aid.-Leopold v. Wiese, Schmollers Jahrbuch, XLIV (April-June, 1920), 2:31–52. (IX, 1.) M. L. K.

Education in Recent Sociology.-(Article VII.) Résumé.—American sociologists, including Ward, Hayes, Todd, Ellwood, and others, have faith in the worth of the individual and the possibilities of doubling the co-operation and solidarity of the masses. Natural leadership: Higher institutions training leaders have great responsibility, since expert leadership may increase capacity for social progress. Social science and pedagogy: Education is a means of progress, but not efficient at present. Scientific sociology will supply the larger view of the business of education needed as the next step in building up a scientific pedagogy. Educational sociology: Books appearing under the name of educational sociology have thus far contributed but little. Three factors are needed: (1) study of principles and theories of sociology; (2) estimation of educational effects, with reference to social aims, of institutions, agencies, and community factors; and (3) adoption of social aims as underlying purposes of education.-J. T. Williams, Education, XLII (December, 1921), 231-42. (IX, 1.) E. B.

The Present Position of Industrial Women Workers. At the present time women workers in industry are either underpaid or out of employment. The situation is one of danger and difficulty. So far the trade board is the best means known to history for securing reasonable rates of pay to the worker in unorganized or ill-organized trades, and for protecting the good employer from the unfair competition of the worse. It appears from evidence given that the productivity of the industry is often retarded through waste, unsanitary working conditions, and inefficiency in management.— B. L. Hutchins, Economic Journal, XXXI (December, 1921), 462-71. (IX, 1.)

X.

D. C. F.

GENERAL SOCIOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

The Formation of Sociology.-Origin: Sociology is, in point of time, the last science; born of Auguste Comte's course of positive philosophy its first name was "social physics." Definition: The history of sociology is "the history of the efforts of human intelligence directed toward the study of social phenomena with the same scientific spirit which astronomy and physics uses, i.e., as subjects to natural laws." Method and point of view: This was the objective that Comte pointed out to the new science. Sociology, to establish itself as a new science, must prove the existence (a) of a special field of observation and (b) of social laws, and (c) an adequate method. This has been accomplished by successive "schools" which have struggled through rationalism and social determinism to the concept of progress advanced by Turgot and Condorcot, and the theory of social evolution and a dynamic sociology conceived by Yico. Raul A. Orgaz, La Formacion de la Sociologia, La Revista de la Universidad Nacional de Cordoba, Argentina (April, 1921). (X, 1.) B. R.

Problems in Teaching Sociology.-Growing interest in social problems: The problems of teaching sociology have increased within the past five years because of the increasing interest in social questions on the part of the common people. Hindrances to the teaching of sociology: (1) Sociology is a new development and lacks prestige; (2) the post-war confusions and unsettlements have made it difficult for the sociologist to contribute toward the solution of group problems; (3) the chief obstacle is the lack of technique for teaching sociology. Courses in sociology are now more diversified: The number of undergratuate courses is increasing rapidly, and the college is rare which offers no courses in sociology. Furthermore the high school is being recognized as a field for sociology, and elementary social studies are finding their way into the grades. Emory S. Bogardus, Journal of Applied Sociology, VI (December, 1921), 19-24. (X, 1.) G. B. J.