pseudo-science seriously. It serves no useful purpose to talk vaguely about "the state." Reformers should consider and discuss voters, electors, average men and women, and the politicians, legislators, and diplomats whom these men and women choose to act for and in the name of the state.-Victor Yarros, The Open Court, XXV (July, 1921), 430-37. W. A. D.

VIII. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

An Analysis of Intelligence Scores, Otis Scale.-Testing in a school in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, brought interesting results. When two children of widely different ages and grades make the same score, it follows that one has inherited greater mental capacity. Otis calls this "brightness," and the degree of mental development, regardless of age, "intelligence." Intelligence increases with age, but brightness remains fixed. Measures of brightness: The normal child is one whose score just exceeds 50 per cent of the scores of all children of his age. The index of brightness is derived by adding to or subtracting from 100 the amount by which his score varies from the norm. Range of mentality: The enormous range appearing in the degree of mental development in each class indicates an injustice in treatment of pupils. Pupils of any given age show great range in ability. There is a low correlation between age and score. In any given class dullness is largely compensated for in older pupils by greater age. The falling away in brightness of the older children in a grade is marked. Overlapping between grades: There is much overlapping of mental ability in the grades. Eight children in the fourth had a level of intelligence in most cases higher than thirty-three in the fifth, twenty-two in the sixth, twenty-one in the seventh, and four in the eighth. Value of testing: By such careful classification, present inconsistencies and injustices could be eliminated.-C. Sansom, School, IX (May, 1921), 635-45. E. B.

Reconstruction in Mental Tests.-The need for a change in mental-test theory and mental-test methods is evident. The need is for a clarification of the concepts and hypotheses underlying the mental-test field. The present desire to revise our statistical technique to conform with mental testing not as a descriptive, but as a technical science is to be deplored for three reasons: (1) It encourages the use of innumerable methods, faulty or merely expedient, which cannot be genuinely productive in a scientific sense. (2) It results in a tendency to ignore the necessity for analysis, and for the isolation of variable factors in connection with a test problem. (3) It limits the possibility of significant contributions to psychological science from the mentaltest field. The most productive reconstruction in the mental-test field will be the one that will give us more light on the general problems of mental adjustment.-Beardsley Ruml, Journal of Philosophy, XVIII (March, 1921), 181–85. W. A. D.

A Survey of Musical Talent in the Public Schools. A psychological test: The time is fast approaching when there will be no excuse for any child passing through the grades, even, without the teacher, parents, and the child itself knowing fairly definitely its peculiar cultural or other possibilities. Children are not born destined to distinction in the popular sense but they are born with special potentialities for distinction which must be given opportunity for development. The presence or absence of any extraordinary abilities may be discovered through the application of psychological tests for individual differences. Purpose of the survey: The object of the survey of musical talent in the public schools is to formulate "scientific means of analysing and evaluating special abilities in musical talent: by establishing norms for fifth- and eighth-grade children; by standardizing methods, apparatus, and technique for group procedure in schools; by presenting fundamental principles for discovering musical talent and conserving musical capacity; and by developing a science of vocational and avocational guidance within this field. Method of the survey: If the musical instructor or other teacher is capable and equipped, the tests may be made along with the course of instruction with a minimum of interruption. Special phonograph records are provided to gauge the pupil's sense of pitch, intensity, time, consonance, and tonal memory. The pupil is then graded on these points and in brightness, singing, rhythm, and amount of training. The findings are recorded for guidance of the teacher and parents.-Carl E. Seashore, University of Iowa, Studies in Child Welfare, I, No. 2, 1920. C. A. W.

health

National Health Insurance and the Medical Profession.- National insurance failed in England: As tried in England, national health insurance so far has failed to show any improvement in conditions of health and dependence as they existed among the working poor previously under the old Poor Laws. It is neglecting the preventive side of the health problem. The general death rate has not been lowered in four years under the new system. Deaths from tuberculosis have actually increased. It has a tendency to pauperize the laboring class. Effect of national health insurance on the medical profession: National health insurance is hopelessly dividing the medical profession into two hostile, at least non-co-operating groups, the panel and the nonpanel physicians. The medical men have been forced into defensive politics and their profession is being reduced to the rank of a trade. It is possible that a sort of doctors' union may be the result and the strike be resorted to in the future. Efficiency is impossible because of the parsimonious economy with which the government is undertaking to operate the system. Effect on the individual practitioner: The medical fraternity as a whole feels that national health insurance is another long step toward, and in itself is a form of, state socialism. It puts a premium on mediocrity and graft in the less ambitious of the profession by guaranteeing them a fixed income and putting them in the rank of petty government officials. For the more aspiring physician who would on his own account pursue a constructive program of medicine there is but little encouragement left for individual initiative. If America must have some form of national health insurance it is to be hoped that she will weigh well the failure of Great Britain's plan and profit by the mistakes made there.-Frederick L. Hoffman, Prudential Press, Newark, N.J., 1920. C. A. W.

Public Health Education and Mental Hygiene.-To bring the problems of mental hygiene under control it is necessary (1) that such facilities for the study of social individuals as exist be made more accessible; (2) that the facilities for the study of social individuals be very greatly increased; and (3) that the facilities for training those who are to undertake the study of the social individuals be increased.-Frankwood E. Williams, American Journal of Public Health, II (May, 1921), 420-24.

W. A. D.

Social Aspect of Mental Defect.-Mental defects must be studied in terms of personality and not viewed simply as intellectual deficiencies. Physicians, teachers, and social workers need much more training in pathological and normal psychology. Hospital and clinical facilities for the diagnosis and care of mental troubles are absurdly inadequate throughout the country. The field for psychiatric service needs to be recognized more seriously by courts of justice, penal institutions, relief agencies, and the general public.-Harold W. Wright, American Journal of Public Health, II (May, 1921), 431-34. W. A. D.

Child Labor and Mental Hygiene.-The abolition of child labor and the establishment of its substitutes, particularly suitable schooling, suitable play, and suitable work, is a task of mental hygiene. Child labor constitutes a repressive environment. Child labor and nervous disorders: Since child labor is defectively motivated work— work that is done with psychic friction-it probably leads directly to nervous disturbance and disorder, as well as indirectly through the fatigue it occasions.-Raymond G. Fuller, American Children, III (May, 1921), 80-84. W. A. D.

Mentally Defective and Retarded Children in Institutions.-Present mental tests for defective and retarded children are inefficient: The Mental Deficiency Act of 1913 in England provides that local educational authorities shall notify authorities under the act of children who should not be in school but should have guardianship or institutional care. Suggested care for children: Mentally retarded children might be cared for by boarding out, by placement in homes with normal children, and by placement in institutions, under trained supervision. Association with normal children is advisable wherever possible. Every institution should be prepared to deal individually with every mentally exceptional child in its care.-T. N. Kelynack, Child, XI (July, 1921), E. B.

295-301.

The Children of Missionaries.-Higher death rate in China than Japan: A questionnaire was sent to over 2200 missionary families in China. The facts tabulated on 1300 returns show a mortality for children which is 50 per cent above the corresponding figure for Japan. Rôle of infectious diseases: Most of the deaths occur in the period between six months and five years, and are due to infectious diseases. The church needs to recognize the economy of raising this health standard.-William G. Lennox, Child, XI (August, 1921), 321-24. E. B.

Infant-Welfare Work in Europe.-The nations becoming concerned: Even before the world-war civilized nations generally had come to realize that one of the best indexes to the future strength of the state was to be found in the record of births and deaths of its babies. Only recently have the nations abandoned the laissez-faire policy in regard to child welfare. It is no longer left to the individual family or voluntary agencies. For the belligerent nations this interest in infant welfare was intensified as they saw their supply of young men dwindling as the war continued. A change of program: A more positive policy has been adopted by all the nations in their attempts to solve the problem. They are as much or even more concerned with removing the causes of infant mortality and defective children as they are with saving those already born. The mother: More attention is given to the education, care, and support of the mother. The right of the child to be well born is best guaranteed by protecting the health of the mother. Methods: Centers are opened where expectant mothers may come for examination and advice. Home-visiting and prenatal care of mothers is arranged for in other places. Special attention is being given to the training and compensation of midwives. Adequate lying-in accommodations are provided. Mothers are instructed in pre- and post-natal care of themselves and their babies. Some form of financial aid is provided where necessary, either in nourishing food or a pension. The child: Infant-welfare centers are opened where the children can be brought regularly for examination, to be weighed, for wholesome food, or to be left with the day nursery in case the mother has to work.-Nettie McGill, U.S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Publication No. 76, 1921. C. A. W.

IX. HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES The Sociological Schools of Comte and Leplay.- Auguste Comte's school: He laid emphasis on the historic position, the influence of time, and thus his chief method was that of historic filiation; it was inductive method. Comte classified social forces into spiritual and temporal, the former being represented in a further subdivision by intellectuals and emotionals, and the latter by chiefs and people. But more vital is his classification of the sciences and the history of their growth in the modern world. Once they had reached a certain development, the advance in each generation depended primarily on the position reached in the preceding period. That gave the growing point from which the next advanced. Leplay's school: His method likewise was inductive. Leplay showed that the terrestrial environment did not act directly but indirectly through the kind of industry which it imposed, and that the form of the family and the institutions springing therefrom, depended on the industrial organization. The fundamental divergence of the two great sociologists is that one deals especially with the factor most powerful in early development, the other with that most powerful in the latter. Thus, both are needed for a complete study of social science, but for the modern world the historic method is more important.-S. H. Swinny, The Sociological Review, XIII (April, 1921), 68-74. C. N.

On the Development of Sociology in Relation to the Theory of Progress.-The culture of the eighteenth century: The dominant characteristic of the culture during this age was a conception of civilization as something absolute, unique, and abstract. The temper of the eighteenth-century enlightenment survived into the nineteenth century, and provided the main doctrinal foundation for the creed of liberalism. The nineteenth-century theories: The theories of progress were elaborated by Buckle in 1856, by Karl Marx in 1867, and by Herbert Spencer between 1851 and 1876. It was the latter who brought the idea of social progress systematically into relation with a general

theory of evolution, and treated it as the culminating branch of a universal development, physical, organic, social. But all these theories were biased by one-sided externalism in their attitude to history. To Buckle and Spencer civilization was a state of material well-being; and the greater spiritual currents that historically have molded the higher civilizations were either neglected by them or else were treated as retarding or distorting forces of the normal development of society. Beginnings of sociological science: During the second and third quarters of the nineteenth century in France the foundations of sociology were laid for the first time. The post-revolutionary period, the foreign influences of Lessing, Herder, Fichte, Hegel, and Vico stimulated intellectual activity. St. Simon, Comte, and Condorcet combined past and present as one phase in the secular evolution of humanity. Frederick Leplay was the first to bring social science into touch with the concrete bases of human life. By the observation of simplest forms of life in their natural economic relations Leplay and his school arrived at a clear conception of the natural region, as the mother and nurse of every primary group social type.-Christopher Dawson, The Sociological Review, XIII (April, 1921), 75-83.

C. N.

Synopsis of the History of Argentine Social Ideas.-Spanish influence: The culmination of the thought of Spanish scholasticism is found in the works of the eminent Jesuit, Francisco Suarez (1548-1617), whose teaching stood out for some time in the Universidad de Cordoba during the colonial period, and which came to be the synthesis of the Jesuitic philosophy and the highest expression of Spanish metaphysics. Catholic scholasticism dominated Argentine in the colonial period. The spirit of the university (1613-1808): In the evolution of the Universidad de Cordoba, two welldefined periods may be distinguished: one of them, the Jesuitic period, during which Gorriti and Funes imparted a tendency toward freedom from the classic, traditionalistic, and theological spirit that had prevailed; and the other the Franciscan period, during which there appeared the innovating tendency faithful to the postulates of the Encyclopedia-which had effected the Argentine revolution-that is, the one symbolized by Mariano Moreno and Bernardo Monteagudo. French influence: The influence of French thought reappeared in the work of Echeverria (1805-51), who founded an association to work for the intellectual emancipation of the country. The Positivists: The books of Alberdi, sociologist, Sarmiento, philosopher, Lopez, historian, and Estrada, philosopher of history, made marked innovations in the direction of individualism and deserve respectable places in the evolution of the national thought.-Raul A. Orgaz, Inter-America, IV (April, 1921), 228–39. W. A. D.

Morality and Democracy. The formal vs. the moral significance of democracy: The notion of democracy is a formal and abstract notion. It means: the people governing itself. The expression possesses a serious and lofty significance only when understood in its moral acceptation. Democracy and the democratic spirit: Democracy, if it is to be worthy of its classic renown, presupposes the democratic spirit. Form is nothing apart from substance; external freedom, absence of restraint, is beneficial and permissible only in so far as he who enjoys it is amenable to the moral freedom of soul and anxious to possess it.-Emile Boutroux, North American Review, CCXIV (August, 1921), 166–76. W. A. D.

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