as the defining senses; (2) able to a degree to manipulate spatial and temporal units; and (3) communicable.-Edwin Diller Starbuck, Journal of Religion, March, 1921. W. A. D.

Elternverantwortlichkeit.—Unwillingness to assume responsibility is a disease of our age. The policy of governments to train subjects to unquestioning obedience to leaders has increased selfishness and untruthfulness. Science has represented the individual as merely a means of maintaining society. The doctrine of the "struggle for existence" was based on a misunderstanding of Darwin's explanation of evolution, and the destruction of life implied in it is a tremendous economic waste. Multiplication of the unfit must rather be prevented by arousing a feeling of responsibility toward the coming generation in those that are eventually to become parents. What the schools need to do, much more than imparting a knowledge of history and mathematics, is informing the pupils about the possibilities of hereditary transmission of disease, as of deafness, goitre, imbecility, etc. The ability to resist one's passions must be increased by training, for every rise in high-strung emotions means a lowering of the feeling of responsibility, as the war has shown. Training for responsibility will be far more effective than coercive measures; besides it is not liable to the same danger of abuse.-H. Fehlinger, Neue Generation, November, 1920.

II. THE FAMILY

La Famille Conjugale.—Characteristics of the conjugal family: The conjugal family, which is that found in the highest European civilizations today, is distinguished from the patriarchal and the paternal families by the fact that its only permanent elements are the husband and wife. There is no legal bond between parents and children after the latter come into their majority and are married. Law of contraction: As society has extended, the family has become more restricted and the state has interfered more in domestic affairs, making marriage binding and limiting the power over children. The family has also became more personal. Break-up of family communism: At one time all relatives lived in common. This is now limited to the primary zone. The inheritance of wealth is a survival of this communism. The right of willing property to one's children is destined to disappear. It is the cause of unjust inequalities in environment. Much of our life is organized around this, however, and it cannot be easily changed. The development of professional groups toward which the individual will feel a duty is the solution.-Émile Durkheim, Revue philosophique, JanuaryFebruary, 1921.

M.S. E.

Laws of Marriage and Divorce.-Reform in the marriage laws in England: Lord Buckmaster and Lord Gorell have introduced bills to reform English marriage laws. The object of both measures: A wife is given right to put an end "to her marriage on proof of a single act of unfaithfulness on the part of her husband without proof of ill-treatment or desertion." The bills in question do not provide for any proof of the identity or condition of the parties proposing to be married, or dissolution of marriage on the ground of its being induced by fraud. The law allows an adulterous wife or husband to marry the other party to the adultery as soon as the decree of divorce has taken effect. Provisions of marriage laws in other countries: The French law provides that a son under the age of twenty-five, or a daughter under the age of twenty-one, cannot marry without the consent of the parents or "the family council." By a law of 1897, both parties to an intended marriage were required to produce to the registrar a certificate of birth issued within three months if issued in France, or within six months if emanating from a colony or consulate. But this law has not entirely prevented the crime of bigamy. In 1884 a law was passed allowing a dissolution of marriage on the ground of adultery, cruelty, criminality, and mutual incompatibility. In Belgium the law of marriage and divorce is much the same as in France. In Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and Portugal, it is provided that where, by the decree of a court dissolving a marriage, one party is found guilty of adultery the spouse found guilty cannot intermarry with his or her paramour. In Spain similar provision exists regarding civil marriage.-F. A. Bosanquet, The Nineteenth Century and After, June, C. N.

1921.

III. PEOPLES AND CULTURAL GROUPS

"Les Commencements de l'Anthropologie en Amérique" par Ales Hrdlicka.— Early influences: Dr. Hrdlicka notes that the presence of native races in America early led to an interest in them which gave the direction to later anthropological research. In addition to this, he refers to the influence of Europe, especially of Linné, Buffon, Cuvier, Blumenbach, and Prichard, and of the Paris Museum of Natural History, as very important. Beginnings of anthropology: The American Antiquarian Society was formed at Worcester in 1812, the Linnaean Society in Boston in 1814, and later the Boston Society of Natural History. A nucleus of anthropology was formed by the works of John Warren who published in 1822 An Account of the Crania of Some of the Aborigines of the United States. The founding of phrenological societies in Boston and Washington gave an impulse to the collection and study of human crania. Samuel G. Morton: American anthropology, strictly speaking, begins with Samuel G. Morton. His monumental work, Crania Americana, appeared in 1839. Morton was forced to invent his own methods of measurement. Six of these are in use today. His conclusions are valuable, his errors being chiefly due to lack of data at that time. Morton stimulated an interest in the American Indians, but unfortunately did not leave a school to carry on his work. Joseph Leidy, Aitken Meigs, and Nottet Gliddon, however, made some contributions under his influence.-L. Manouvrier, Revue anthropologique, January-February, 1921. M. S. E.

Anti-Japanese State Legislation.-California: Recent legislation in California protests against the United States treaties giving citizenship to Japanese, against nullification of the state "alien land law," and emphasizes the right of each state to safeguard itself against aliens. Another bill extends the laws restricting ownership of property to include all aliens, even Dutch and English, who are greatly affected. Several western states are following this example. Arizona: A stringent anti-alien bill prohibiting ownership of property. Idaho: A bill forbidding immigration, citizenship, and ownership of property, with certain exceptions. Nevada: Resolution excluding foreigners ineligible for citizenship from owning farming or mining property. A further bill similar to those of California and Arizona. Oregon: One modeled on the Arizona bill. Texas: Individuals ineligible for citizenship are prohibited from owning land. Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah: Bills in these states are modeled on the California alien land law.-Japan Review, April, 1921. E. B.

How Shall Japanese-Americans in Idaho Be Treated?-Idaho proposes a law against the Japanese, who have done her no harm, entirely on the basis of California's action. The latter results from stampeding the people into belief in a series of falsehoods. False statements: Figures circulated showing that in sixty-some years, because of high fecundity, the Japanese will be sole inhabitants of the state are unfounded. Further statistics to make them owners of all the property in the state one hundred and sixty-five years hence are equally ridiculous. A report published to the effect that there were four thousand aliens illegally in the state, which was disproved but never retracted, roused Californians to a frenzy. Another report, by a legislator, stating that the Japanese had leased 10 million acres of land in the northern part of the state, has been disproved but is still spreading. The truth: What land the Japanese own is usually so poor that their predecessors, Americans who were swindled into buying it, were not energetic enough to cultivate it. For reclaiming such land the Japanese have a distinct genius. The honor of the state and of the nation demands justice to the one nation which at the time of the San Francisco earthquake immediately wired money to shelter and feed the sufferers. Such falsehood as is being circulated threatens our nation with a world-war.-John P. Irish, Japan Review, May, 1921 E. B.

Family Folkways and Mores.-The contract for marriage is usually made by parents, relatives, or friends. Marriage usually takes place when the bride is between the ages of ten and thirteen. Their husbands are often thirty-five or older, and men highly educated; for there is an extensive educational program for the boys, but education for girls until very recently was almost unheard of. The state of health of the average Assamese family is deplorable. Physicians are scarce, especially women physicians, and the men will not permit their wives to be treated by men, for, after marriage, no man except her father or brother is permitted to set eyes upon her.

Changes through Christian schools: The Christian schools for girls extend the period of childhood, train the girls to be better mothers, prepare for entrance into training schools for nurses and doctors, and are gradually changing social behavior and attitudes developed by a system organized to keep the sexes separate.-Elizabeth E. Hay, Journal of Religion, March, 1921. W. A. D.

The Food of the Immigrant in Relation to Health.-The Poles and other Slavic Peoples: The Poles who come to America are typically rural people whose diet has included plenty of vegetables and meat. Many aspects of our life are new to them. Changes in diel: Because of the expense, eggs and milk are shortly dispensed with and no substitutes provided. Children who came with rosy cheeks, missing dairy products and eggs, develop anemia and illness. To rehabilitate them, it is necessary to prescribe soups, eggs, milk, and cereal. With sympathetic understanding it is possible to prepare these properly and still cater to the national tastes of food. The same is true in the case of adults suffering from constipation, diabetes, tuberculosis, and other diseases. International food tastes of the Jews: An international race, the Jews have acquired tastes for food of many countries, which they have adapted to their dietary laws. These laws must be understood by social workers among them. Change of occupation: Elsewhere an out-of-door group, here they become indoor workers with little exercise. Failing to adapt their diet accordingly, they experience great discomfort from the customary weekly feasts of rich food. They need to cultivate a taste for simpler foods. Proper diet: It is difficult to meet the kosher requirements in preparing foods, which are classified as (1) meat or fish, (2) milk and its products, (3) Neutrals. Meat and milk may not be mixed. Neutrals may accompany meat or milk, but never both in the same meal. Nevertheless, it is entirely possible to prepare nourishing diet for the children and invalids and still satisfy the tastes of the race. The Jewish woman has had extensive experience in accommodating to new dietaries. This fact makes her apt in learning.—Michael M. Davis, Jr., and Bertha M. Wood, Journal of Home Economics, January, 1921. E. B.

Religion in Terms of Social Consciousness.-Nature of consciousness: Later investigators are dropping the notion of specific instincts. They speak of impulsive tendencies and attitudes or phases of complex organic behavior. These tendencies are conceived as elicited and conditioned by social experience. Human nature is thoroughly social, involving the interaction of social stimulus and response. Thought, of the most private character, becomes a conversation between the different "selves" within the imagination. These selves are developed through participation in social relations, and consciousness is itself an interplay of rôles gathered from intercourse with one's fellows. The individual is not then to be set off against society, nor counted simply as one unit which may be associated with similar units to produce an aggregate called society. The mind and "soul" are social through and through. The individual is real enough, but his reality is within the social situation. Nature of religion: Religion is identified with the highest social consciousness-not with social consciousness in general. By "highest" is meant the most intimate and vital phases of the social consciousness. This highest social consciousness is not the same in all peoples and times, but every people and every time have a scale of values in which certain interests are felt to be the most important. These constitute their religious values. To discover the religious values of any group, examine their ceremonials and their social organization and find what they are most concerned about. When the highest social values are lifted out of the realm of custom, religion tends to become identified with the more consciously chosen ideals. Social approval and social ostracism guard the sanctities of life both in savage and in civilized communities. Nature is instrumental for the great ideal ends of religion. The sense of participating in "social experience, of the character and magnitude that it is, has a genuine religious significance.-Edward Scribner Ames, Journal of Religion, May, 1921. W. A. D.

IV. CONFLICT AND ACCOMMODATION GROUPS

The Industrial Problem of the Proletariat.—This question has point because of its bearing on both the (theoretical) transitional proletarian stage and the subsequent era of socialism. Improvement of the standard of living: The loss of a standard of living is more revolutionizing than the mere urge to better such standard. This improvement can be effected only by an increase, first, of the available food supply, and secondly,

of the goods made by quantity production, and not by expropriation of the luxury of the ruling classes. Conflict between dictatorship rules and industrial principles: To meet the shift in production, the factors of production must be reorganized. But here the dictatorship comes into collision with industrial principles, for example, the realignment of labor, creation of new enterprises, and redistribution of raw materials. The dictatorship demands that these subserve its rules of labor placement. Morale and labor output: The introduction of the time wage has resulted in the reduction of the intensity of application and the tendency for the amount of labor output to drop to that of the poorest workman. The only resort of the dictatorship is to appeal to the morale of the workmen to increase their discipline and the amount of their output. -Dr. Elias Hurwicz, Neue Zeit, 39, 2:30-34. E. T. H.

The Geography of Japan with Special Reference to Its Influence on the Character of the Japanese People.-Profound influence of the formation of the Japanese Island: The long coast line, encouraging the fishing industry, thereby promotes hardihood. Immunity from invasion develops pride and self-satisfaction. Volcanoes, quakes, tidal waves, typhoons, floods, and treacherous rocks possess the imagination with dread. Luxuriant vegetation, clear air, and contrasts in climate produce a stimulating effect. Parallels in Greece: Ancient Greece presented similar features: structure-promoting formation of small communities with characteristic differences of appearance, dialect, and customs; free commerce; frugality arising from infertility of soil; tendency to identify hills with shrines and legends. Striking natural features: Subarctic and subtropic climates exist almost side by side. Earthquakes to the number of four a day are common. Mineral springs furnish bathing facilities and recreation to peasants, where customs permit free mingling of sexes. Floods devastating the land give rise to festivals of supplication. Over half the inhabitants live in rural districts. The farmer's difficulties inculcate patience and perseverance, and his status is high. Great ranges of impassable peaks and ridges limit intercourse and mobility. Their beauties inspire love and reverence, their wildernesses fear, as expressed in art and religion. Superstition: Physical phenomena are supposed to be controlled by magic, as when the dangers of climbing may be overcome by eating the choicest part of a mountain chamois that its characteristics may enter into the nature of the climber. Conflict of cultures: The tenth century meets the twentieth at the top of Fujiyama, where a picture-postcard store flaunts itself in the face of a shrine for the worship of the Rising Sun.-Walter Weston, National Geographic Magazine, July, 1921. E. B.

Schwarze Rasse und Geschlechtsmoral.-Misdeeds of the French army of occupation, especially the colored troops, have called forth a flood of impassioned protests, and an American lady traveling in Germany has recommended lynching. Have six years of war failed to teach us that by such a spirit what is indeed sad and terrible will only be magnified to gigantic proportions? Witness the misdeeds of the German army in Lille, the "paradise of love," and the callousness we showed in the deportation of old men, women, and girls from Belgium. Let us rather aim to repay all the good that is being done to us, and we shall find it a surer and swifter method of getting back to normal conditions. Good deeds will be infectious. Prejudice against the colored races is unfounded. People of colored races often surpass us in self-control and moderation, and rank high in logical acuity and in creative imagination. A better knowledge on our part of their natural frankness, happy disposition, and touching kindness may gradually cure us of our superiority and teach us tactfulness. Why speak of a "black shame," when we cannot deny the existence of an infinitely more humiliating "white shame"? For centuries numbers of white women, victims of the unbridled lust of "white" men have been going to the dogs physically and morally in our most "cultured" countries, not to mention the colored victims of white men in the colonies. Before we proceed to hang and burn black sinners, let us give proof that we are culturally the superiors of the colored races; and perhaps we shall learn in the attempt that honor and dignity in a man is not a question of skin-color. -Dr. Helene Stöcker, Neue Generation, August-September, 1920.

V. COMMUNITIES AND TERRITORIAL GROUPS

VI. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Housing Conditions in Germany.-The causes of bad housing in Germany: A partial explanation of the situation is the overcrowded condition of the German popula

tion in proportion to the territory it occupies and to the economic pressure resulting from it. Before the war Germany had to feed about 70 millions on an area covering 208,780 English square miles. Since the Armistice this area has been reduced to 188,990 English square miles in which to house and feed 60 million persons. Intense overcrowding also has been brought about through the stoppage of building during the war, and through the increase of householders by new marriages and the returning families from the colonies who were forced to seek refuge in the mother-country. The seriousness of the housing problem: In Berlin on July 1, 1920, there were 72,500 householders waiting to be sheltered; in Karlsruhe 2,371 were homeless; 10,000 people were seeking homes in Breslau; 6,000 in Cologne; 6,000 in Nuremberg, and 5000 in Augsburg; in Munich 21,671 householders applied for accommodations in May, 1919. The shortage affects all classes alike. Remedial measures: No person is permitted to to possess more than a certain amount of space within his own home. A room per person, with an extra room for the kitchen, is the principle limitation everywhere, and no family may possess more than one house. Temporary homes also have been built on the little allotment gardens on the outskirts of the town.-Katherine S. Dreier, The Survey, May 7, 1921. C. N.

Motion Pictures and Crime.-The motion picture as a cause of crime: A large number of very young persons are implicated in crimes of all sorts throughout the country. Newspaper articles and editorials have discussed the matter, and blame is placed frequently upon the motion picture. A large portion of the motion pictures suggest murder, burglary, violence, and other antisocial influences. The problem of the mentally retarded individual and of the normal child: The average adult cannot interpret the reactions of a child in terms of his own reactions, because there are fundamental differences of the two. These two groups are marked off from normal adults in that they are more susceptible to suggestion; they lack foresight to weigh the consequences for self and others of different kinds of behavior; they have less capacity and willingness to exercise self-restraint; and their imagination is less controlled and checked by reference to the realities. The quality of films may be improved by proper legislation and by the foresight of their producers.-A. T. Poffenberger, The Scientific Monthly, April, 1921. C. N.

Play and the Ultimates.-Life under modern circumstances prevents the expression of natural tendencies and interests. To fulfil such needs, the bills for school nurses and physical training should be passed by the Massachusetts legislature. They will provide for play as well as physical training. Essentials of play: Play must build up physically, cater to interest, create something beautiful, find a market for it, and promote social interaction. Function of school: The school must serve as a findingplace of lost talents; promote music and art; bring parents and children into rapport; teach the value of leisure time for personal growth; and show the satisfaction of developing all the resources offered by our vocation. Only thus will the school fill out human nature and make men and women.-Joseph Lee, Education, May, 1921. E. B.

Education in Bolshevik Russia.- Education before the revolution: Only 20 per cent of the population, chiefly of the upper classes, were literate. Elementary education, particularly, was of poor quality. Principles of new program: German, English, Italian, and American ideas are incorporated in a new system providing for the children from kindergarten to university. Education is for all classes, all ages, and both sexes. While dogmatic in some ways, it yet inculcates ideals of freedom, criticism, and independence. Standards of training: Practice schools are promoted for the purpose of training teachers. In this connection the outstanding characteristic of the system is its experimental nature. Handicaps: Buildings, equipment, clothing, food, soap, medical attendance, and books are almost impossible to secure. For this and other reasons, the movement confined mainly to the cities such as Petrograd and Moscow, has scarcely reached the village peasants. Conclusions: The child population is greatly handicapped. The resulting death-rate is tremendous. The situation would be saved by opening up trade and political relationship, together with pioneer work by individuals. Otherwise a great people will die and a world-educational experiment fail.-L. Haden Guest, The Child, May, 1921. E. B.