VIII. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

1. Statistics, Graphic Representation

2. Mental and Social Measurements

3. Social Surveys: Community Organization, Community Education, Health, Government, Mental Hygiene, etc.

4. Case Studies and Social Diagnosis

5. Life-Histories and Psychoanalysis

IX. HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. Social Ethics and Social Philosophy

I. PERSONALITY: THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE PERSON

Rejuvenation.-War accidents resulting in asexualization with attendant loss of masculine traits and of personality and acumen led to physiological experimentation. Rejuvenation and acceleration of puberty in animal subjects: Experimentation on animal subjects shows deterioration due to asexualization and a more than corresponding revival when glands are again grafted in, after any length of time, whether in the normal location or elsewhere. By an incision senile subjects are revived and take on all the traits of youth in physical appearance, behavior, and procreative powers. The effect is heightened if healthy glands of other individuals are grafted in. Extent of rejuvenation: By these operations rejuvenation is effected to the extent of one-fourth the life-expectancy of the animal subject, and can be repeated with similar effect. By the use of Roentgen rays puberty symptoms are produced at one-third the normal age. Rejuvenation of human subjects: The possibility of this has been demonstrated by ingrafting and by an incision where glands were remaining. Dr. Paul Kammerer, Neue Generation, 16:293-96. E. T. H.

Comparative Studies of the Work Process.-The work process as represented in spontaneous expression of maximum exertion is studied by means of measuring devices in not only normal and subnormal persons of different ages, but also in insects, fowls, hares, cats, dogs, and other animals. General type of energy development: Energy is applied in one of two curve forms: spurts of exertion and steady continuous pull. The form of exertion depends on the type of locomotion and on the momentary excitation within the organism. Acute and chronic fatigue: In all subjects the curve flattens with increase of fatigue, distinguishing acute and chronic fatigue. The chronicfatigued have the characteristics of the sensory, non-motor type; the vigorous, nonfatigued have the characteristics of the motor-reaction type. Disposition to exertion: The following among other subjects show themselves capable of near maximum exertion by inner impulse: normal persons, some subnormals, the cat, dog, and possibly even insects. The animal subjects that are not given to exertion out of inner motive are those that readily assume temporary immobility (animal hypnosis). This is overcome by appropriate excitation. Life-principle in terms of exertion: It seems to be a principle common to all life-forms to exert approximately maximum energy by inner movement; where lacking, this is due to peculiar characteristics of the subject concer ed. Fatigue causes the subject to misinterpret the objective facts. Rhythm of the work process: Normal adults, some children, and some subnormals show a distinct work rhythm. Where lacking, effort tends to introduce it, thus implying efficacy of practice. Insects exhibit such rhythm, mammals less so. The habituated and intellectually controlled movements and the instinctive movements agree in working in the shortest line to their aim.-J. S. Szymanski, Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie, 18, 1, 3:1-18. E. T. H.

The Problem of Population.-Popular reaction to Malthus' essay on population: In this treatise Malthus indicated that the permanent improvement of society is impossible without a conscious limitation of the rate at which children are born. His doctrine was attacked by theologians who argued that children were sent by God and that it was impious to interfere with God's decree, and by semisocialists like Godwine who assumed that the limitation of population was a device of the rich to stave off a revolt of the poor. The positive checks on population: Three propositions are set forth

in the doctrine; namely, population is limited by the means of subsistence; population invariably increases, unless prevented by powerful and obvious checks; these checks are all resolvable into moral restraint, vice, and misery. Population tends to increase pari passu with an increase in the means of subsistence. The races and nations of the world are in the ultimate resort compelled to struggle with one another to get a maximum share of a limited food supply. Limitation of birth-rate: A race limits its numbers by discouraging births-mankind's historic method which still is maintained by lower races and lower classes of people; and by encouraging unwanted babies to die, as in the slums of London and New York. Some highly civilized nations have already learnt to limit their numbers. The lower races must also learn to restrict their numbers, or else the mastery of the world will pass to the inferior but more prolific types of mankind.-Harold Cox, The Dial, May, 1921. C. N.

The Agricultural Limits of Our Population. The law of population: Pearl and Reed have developed a law which is expressed by a portion of the curve of a logarithmic beax parabola having the formula where a, b, and c have positive values. The 1-ceax' major asymptote of the curve, as applied to our own country, gives the ultimate population limit of continental United States as 197 millions. Making allowances for all other factors, 800 million acres of arable land will support 320 million people, or 2.5 acres per man. If 11 millions be added to the preceding sum, which is obtained by calculating the productivity of our grazing lands and forests, the maximum population the United States can support is 321 millions. Land cultivation in other countries: The figures obtained from different countries are comparable with 42 per cent proposed for the United States as the sum total of her arable possibilities. Before the war Germany cultivated 1.15 acres per capita, France 1.5 acres, Italy 0.98 acres, Belgium 0.57 acres. China has about 300 millions with a land area 600 million acres greater than the United States. Japan, with a population of 52 millions in 1911, cultivated 18 million acres out of a total land area of 94 million acres. By an extraordinary use of fertilizers she was able to support 3 persons per acre. If the United States could do as well on her 800 million acres of arable land, our population would be 2,000 millions. But Japan really would need 1.5 acres per man to support her population in terms of American food habits. At this rate the United States could support only 530 millions on her arable land-the ultimate limit humanly possible for the country.-E. M. East, The Scientific Monthly, June, 1921. C. N.

La Tyrannie Eugénistique.-Sterilization laws in the United States: Dr. Harry H. Laughlin in the October number of Social Hygiene cites fifteen states in which laws have been passed providing means for the prevention of procreation by defectives confined in state institutions. Such laws put people at the mercy of surgeons and the directors of the institutions without recourse to any tribunal. In five of the fifteen states the law has been declared unconstitutional. A standard state law: Dr. Laughlin advocates a uniform law which would provide for the sterilization of the feeble-minded, the insane, certain types of criminals, epileptics, drunkards, those having certain diseases, the blind, the deaf, the deformed, and dependents. This legislation would be contrary to the principles of equality of the American democracy.-N. Mondet, Journal des économistes, January, 1921. M. S. E.

L'Hygiène et l'Éducation des Enfants Vicieux ou Coupables.-Causes of juvenile delinquency: Heredity and environment are both important factors. Fifty per cent of delinquency is due to lack of proper home life, 30 per cent to mental troubles. Types of delinquent children: (1) the child mentally and morally sound, but exposed to bad environment; (2) the poorly trained child; (3) the mistreated child; (4) the feeble-minded child; (5) the degenerate child; (6) the mentally unbalanced child; (7) the child lacking most of the social instincts. Treatment of delinquent children; (1) Treatment should fit the individual case. To secure this, observation clinics should be established. (2) Juvenile courts should be created. (3) Institutions for the education and guidance of delinquents should be developed. Observation clinics. The problem of finding a suitable place to confine minors while awaiting trial is solved by the observation clinic, in which the mental, physical, and moral life of the child is studied. The changed environment and the treatment by specialists often bring to

light the peculiar needs of the child. Juvenile courts: The first juvenile court was established in Chicago in 1899. The movement spread over the United States and Europe. Some form of it may be found in Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and France. In France an informal inquiry is conducted by a judge who is a child specialist. Disposal of cases: The judge sometimes merely gives the child needed advice. In other cases he may take it under his control and either return it to its parents on probation or place it in some family, some public or private institution of relief, a house of correction, or a special asylum. Whatever may be the method adopted, it should not be of a fixed character.-P. Noblécourt and G. Schreiber, Revue philanthropique, January, 1921. M. S. E.

Observations Psychologiques sur les Combattants.-Spread of fear and courage: The exhibition of fear in one soldier may arouse fear in others, boldness may reassure them. But sometimes rashness produces an idea of danger and hence causes fear. Inversely, cowardice may inspire others to show their superiority by acts of valor. The less community one has with a group, the less exposed he is to emotional contagion. Influence of ideas of danger on fear: Fear is not proportional to danger but to the idea one has of it. Soldiers feel at ease in a sheltered place which may be more dangerous than the open. Unknown peril seems greater than it is, and unexpected danger produces more fear than if foreseen. Conditions affecting fear: The consciousness of fighting for some great cause can overcome fear. Anger sometimes grows out of fear. War breaks down the veneer of civilization and leads to superstitions which affect the conduct in the face of danger. Habit lessens the fear of immediate danger, but cannot remove the apprehension of suffering and death which the soldier imagines when unoccupied. Influence of wounds and nervous troubles: Wounds produce a physical fear which is hard to overcome. Danger sometimes inhibits, sometimes stimulates, action. Emotional outlets: Sentimentality which is inhibited on the battle field seeks outlets in other directions. Nervous relaxation sometimes takes the form of exuberance, weeping, or laughing. Sleep: Some soldiers can sleep soundly after battle, others cannot. Men deadened for lack of sleep do not heed danger and work automatically. After expenditure of great effort soldiers often fear slight things. The stupor into which some men fall after emotional strain and the excitement which others feel may be explained by the self-control of the former.-Lieutenant Colonel Constantin, Revue philosophique, March-April, 1921. M. S. E.

In so

The Intimate Senses as Sources of Wisdom.-The ten special senses: There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the ten or more senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch (pressure), pain, temperature, equilibrium (static), kinaesthetic (muscle), organic. The criterion of special sense is that it has a specialized set of end-organs or receptors for reporting to the organism certain kinds of existing objects, and that it is connected through the central areas with a particular kind of response. Distinction between the defining and the intimate senses: In so far as a receptor discriminates qualities in objects and perceives their kinships, it may be called a defining sense. far as a receptor reports to consciousness directly or indirectly qualities of objects together with cues of right response, it may be designated an intimate sense. So there are defining sensory processes and intimate sensory processes. All of the senses are capable of both processes. The two types of sensory behavior are both high each in its own way when dealing with certain sorts of objects. There has been a double line of development equally important: the one moving in the direction of description, scientific analysis, practical manipulation, logical construction, and system-building; the other in interpreting its objects and their meanings and in holding the individual in right relationship in his world of experience. The intimate sensory processes are the direct and important sources of meaning, of worth, and of value. They are sources of wisdom in morals, aesthetics, and religion. The mechanisms of the defining and intimate senses. The central mechanism of the defining processes has the central nervous system with the cerebrum and its highest structure. The neural mechanism of the intimate senses is the autonomic, or sympathetic, system and its connection with all the viscera and the smooth muscle tissues of the body. The language of the intimate-sense wisdom is symbolism that can hint and suggest meanings that are indescribable. Fallacies regarding the intimate senses: Contrary to certain psychological points of view, the intimate senses are: (1) as consistent in their objective reference

as the defining senses; (2) able to a degree to manipulate spatial and temporal units; and (3) communicable.-Edwin Diller Starbuck, Journal of Religion, March, 1921.

W. A. D.

Elternverantwortlichkeit.-Unwillingness to assume responsibility is a disease of our age. The policy of governments to train subjects to unquestioning obedience to leaders has increased selfishness and untruthfulness. Science has represented the individual as merely a means of maintaining society. The doctrine of the "struggle for existence" was based on a misunderstanding of Darwin's explanation of evolution, and the destruction of life implied in it is a tremendous economic waste. Multiplication of the unfit must rather be prevented by arousing a feeling of responsibility toward the coming generation in those that are eventually to become parents. What the schools need to do, much more than imparting a knowledge of history and mathematics, is informing the pupils about the possibilities of hereditary transmission of disease, as of deafness, goitre, imbecility, etc. The ability to resist one's passions must be increased by training, for every rise in high-strung emotions means a lowering of the feeling of responsibility, as the war has shown. Training for responsibility will be far more effective than coercive measures; besides it is not liable to the same danger of abuse.-H. Fehlinger, Neue Generation, November, 1920.

II. THE FAMILY

La Famille Conjugale.-Characteristics of the conjugal family: The conjugal family, which is that found in the highest European civilizations today, is distinguished from the patriarchal and the paternal families by the fact that its only permanent elements are the husband and wife. There is no legal bond between parents and children after the latter come into their majority and are married. Law of contraction: As society has extended, the family has become more restricted and the state has interfered more in domestic affairs, making marriage binding and limiting the power over children. The family has also became more personal. Break-up of family communism: At one time all relatives lived in common. This is now limited to the primary zone. The inheritance of wealth is a survival of this communism. The right of willing property to one's children is destined to disappear. It is the cause of unjust inequalities in environment. Much of our life is organized around this, however, and it cannot be easily changed. The development of professional groups toward which the individual will feel a duty is the solution.-Émile Durkheim, Revue philosophique, JanuaryFebruary, 1921.

M. S. E.

Laws of Marriage and Divorce.-Reform in the marriage laws in England: Lord Buckmaster and Lord Gorell have introduced bills to reform English marriage laws. The object of both measures: A wife is given right to put an end "to her marriage on proof of a single act of unfaithfulness on the part of her husband without proof of ill-treatment or desertion." The bills in question do not provide for any proof of the identity or condition of the parties proposing to be married, or dissolution of marriage on the ground of its being induced by fraud. The law allows an adulterous wife or husband to marry the other party to the adultery as soon as the decree of divorce has taken effect. Provisions of marriage laws in other countries: The French law provides that a son under the age of twenty-five, or a daughter under the age of twenty-one, cannot marry without the consent of the parents or "the family council." By a law of 1897, both parties to an intended marriage were required to produce to the registrar a certificate of birth issued within three months if issued in France, or within six months if emanating from a colony or consulate. But this law has not entirely prevented the crime of bigamy. In 1884 a law was passed allowing a dissolution of marriage on the ground of adultery, cruelty, criminality, and mutual incompatibility. In Belgium the law of marriage and divorce is much the same as in France. In Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and Portugal, it is provided that where, by the decree of a court dissolving a marriage, one party is found guilty of adultery the spouse found guilty cannot intermarry with his or her paramour. In Spain similar provision exists regarding civil marriage.-F. A. Bosanquet, The Nineteenth Century and After, June,

1921.

C. N.

III. PEOPLES AND CULTURAL GROUPS

"Les Commencements de l'Anthropologie en Amérique" par Ales Hrdlicka.Early influences: Dr. Hrdlicka notes that the presence of native races in America early led to an interest in them which gave the direction to later anthropological research. In addition to this, he refers to the influence of Europe, especially of Linné, Buffon, Cuvier, Blumenbach, and Prichard, and of the Paris Museum of Natural History, as very important. Beginnings of anthropology: The American Antiquarian Society was formed at Worcester in 1812, the Linnaean Society in Boston in 1814, and later the Boston Society of Natural History. A nucleus of anthropology was formed by the works of John Warren who published in 1822 An Account of the Crania of Some of the Aborigines of the United States. The founding of phrenological societies in Boston and Washington gave an impulse to the collection and study of human crania. Samuel G. Morton: American anthropology, strictly speaking, begins with Samuel G. Morton. His monumental work, Crania Americana, appeared in 1839. Morton was forced to invent his own methods of measurement. Six of these are in use today. His conclusions are valuable, his errors being chiefly due to lack of data at that time. Morton stimulated an interest in the American Indians, but unfortunately did not leave a school to carry on his work. Joseph Leidy, Aitken Meigs, and Nottet Gliddon, however, made some contributions under his influence.-L. Manouvrier, Revue anthropologique, January-February, 1921. M. S. E.

Anti-Japanese State Legislation.-California: Recent legislation in California protests against the United States treaties giving citizenship to Japanese, against nullification of the state "alien land law," and emphasizes the right of each state to safeguard itself against aliens. Another bill extends the laws restricting ownership of property to include all aliens, even Dutch and English, who are greatly affected. Several western states are following this example. Arizona: A stringent anti-alien bill prohibiting ownership of property. Idaho: A bill forbidding immigration, citizenship, and ownership of property, with certain exceptions. Nevada: Resolution excluding foreigners ineligible for citizenship from owning farming or mining property. A further bill similar to those of California and Arizona. Oregon: One modeled on the Arizona bill. Texas: Individuals ineligible for citizenship are prohibited from owning land. Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah: Bills in these states are modeled on the California alien land law.-Japan Review, April, 1921. E. B.

How Shall Japanese-Americans in Idaho Be Treated?-Idaho proposes a law against the Japanese, who have done her no harm, entirely on the basis of California's action. The latter results from stampeding the people into belief in a series of falsehoods. False statements: Figures circulated showing that in sixty-some years, because of high fecundity, the Japanese will be sole inhabitants of the state are unfounded. Further statistics to make them owners of all the property in the state one hundred and sixty-five years hence are equally ridiculous. A report published to the effect that there were four thousand aliens illegally in the state, which was disproved but never retracted, roused Californians to a frenzy. Another report, by a legislator, stating that the Japanese had leased 10 million acres of land in the northern part of the state, has been disproved but is still spreading. The truth: What land the Japanese own is usually so poor that their predecessors, Americans who were swindled into buying it, were not energetic enough to cultivate it. For reclaiming such land the Japanese have a distinct genius. The honor of the state and of the nation demands justice to the one nation which at the time of the San Francisco earthquake immediately wired money to shelter and feed the sufferers. Such falsehood as is being circulated threatens our nation with a world-war.-John P. Irish, Japan Review, May, 1921 E. B.

Family Folkways and Mores.-The contract for marriage is usually made by parents, relatives, or friends. Marriage usually takes place when the bride is between the ages of ten and thirteen. Their husbands are often thirty-five or older, and men highly educated; for there is an extensive educational program for the boys, but education for girls until very recently was almost unheard of. The state of health of the average Assamese family is deplorable. Physicians are scarce, especially women physicians, and the men will not permit their wives to be treated by men, for, after marriage, no man except her father or brother is permitted to set eyes upon her.